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1994 - VOLUME 30, NUMBER 1-2

MARKET AND DEVELOPMENT

95.70.1 - French - Claude ROBINAU, ORSOM, 213 rue La Fayette, 75480 Paris Cedex 10 (France) Economic anthropology and market (Anthropologie économique et marché) (p. 23-33) 95.70.2 - French - Serge LATOUCHE, Université Paris-XI (Paris-Sud), Faculté Jean-Monnet, 54 bd Desgranges, 92331 Sceaux Cedex (France) Market and markets (Marché et marchés) (p. 35-52) 95.70.3 - French - Hervé DEFALVARD, Centre d'Anthropologie économique et sociale, Université Paris-X Nanterre, 200 av de la République, 92001 Nanterre Cedex (France) Markets and economic development (Marché et développement économique) (p. 53-74) 95.70.4 - French - Alain VALETTE, ORSTOM, Bât. CNRS-SUD, Domaine universitaire, 33405 Talence Cedex (France) Market and structural adjustment, the stormy marriage of a well-known couple (Marché et ajustement structurel. Le mariage tumultueux d'un couple célèbre) (p. 77-89) 95.70.5 - French - Michel HUSSON, IRES, Immeuble Maille-Nord 4, 16 bd du Mont-d'Est, 93160 noisy-le-Grand (France) The fallacious evidences of the market. The case of the North American Free Trade (Les fausses évidences du marché. Le cas de l'Accord de libre-échange nord-américain) (p. 91-109)

95.70.6 - French - François ROUBAUD, ORSTOM, Gis-Dial, 14 bd Saint-Martin, 75010 Paris (France) Where is the market? Remarks on an example of comparative macro modeling: Africa/Latin America (Où est le marché ? Réflexions à partir d'un exercice de modélisation comparée Afrique-Amérique latine) (p. 111-133)

95.70.7 - French - Norbert HOLCBLAT, ORSTOM, 213 rue La Fayette, 75010 Paris (France) Eastern Europe: Towards the real existing market (Pays de l'Est : vers le marché réellement existant) (p. 135-153) 95.70.8 - French - Jean-Marc GASTELLU, LEA, ORSTOM, B.P. 5045, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1 (France), and Epifanio BACA TUPAYACHI, CERA, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Apartado 477, Cusco (Peru)

The market in peasant economies (Le marché dans les économies paysannes) (p. 157-178)

95.70.9 - French - Yves GUILLERMOU, Université Toulouse-III Paul-Sabatier, Faculté de Médecine de Toulouse-Purpan, 37 allée Jules-Guesde, 31062 Toulouse Cedex (France) Markets, State and peasant logics in Algeria (Marché, Etat et logiques paysannes en Algérie) (p. 179-196) 95.70.10 - French - Emmanuel FAUROUX, CNRE, ORSTOM, B.P. 404, Tuléar (Madagascar) Market exchanges in pastoral societies in Southern Magadascar (Les échanges marchands dans les sociétés pastorales de l'ensemble méridional de Madagascar) (p. 197-210) 95.70.11 - French - Pascal LABAZEE, ORSTOM, B.P. 11476, Niamey (Niger) Producers, consumers and merchants from the Northern Ivory Coast: Aspects of the social construction of exchange relation (Producteurs, consommateurs et marchands du Nord ivoirien) (p. 211-227)

95.70.12 - French - Agnès LAMBERT, IRAM, 49 rue de la Glacière, 75013 Paris (France), and Johny EGG, INRA-EST, 3191 route de Mende, B.P. 5056, 34033 Montpellier (France) Commerce, networks and markets: Rice supply in the countries of the Senegambian area (Commerce, réseaux et marché. L'approvisionnement en riz dans les pays de l'espace sénégambien) (p. 229-254) 95.70.13 - French - Robert VUARIN, Université de Provence Aix-Marseille-1, 29 av Robert-Schumann, 13621 Aix-en-Provence (France) Money and connections (L'argent et l'entregent) (p. 255-273) 95.70.14 - French - Benoît LOOTVOET, ORSTOM, 72 route d'Aulnay, 93143 Bondy Cedex (France) Can palaver about a few sardines constitute a market? How women who smoke bonga in Dixinn (Conakry) get their supplies) (Des palabres autour de quelques sardines : en faire un marché ? L'approvisionnement des fumeuses de bonga à Dixinn (Conakry)) (p. 275-287)

1994 - VOLUME 30, NUMBER 3

UNCERTAIN IDENTITIES

95.70.15 - French - Anath ARIEL DE VIDAS, EHESS, 54 bd Raspail, 75006 Paris (France) Others identity, identity by the other. The conservancy of Indian cultural patrimony in northeastern Mexico (Identié de l'Autre, identité par l'Autre : la gestion du patrimoine culturel indien dans le nord-est du Mexique) (p. 373-389)

95.70.16 - French - Aline HEMOND "Indians" or "civilized"? The San Juan Tetelcingo Dam and the dynamic of representations of identity in the Nahua region of the Upper Balsas (Mexico) (" Indiens " ou " Civilisés " ? L'affaire du barrage San juan Tetelcingo (Mexique)) (p. 391-410) 95.70.17 - English - Toon VAN MEIJL, Centre for Pacific Studies, University of Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9108, 6500 HK Nijmegen (Netherlands) "Shifting the goal posts". The politics of the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand (p. 411-434)

95.70.18 - French - Pierre LE ROUX, IRSEA-CNRS, Université de Provence, 389 av du club hippique, 13084 Aix-en-Provence (France) The identity paradox of the Jawi in Thailand or the ethnonym of a transition (Le paradoxe identitaire des Jawi de Thaïlande ou l'ethnonume d'une transition) (p. 435-453) 95.70.19 - English - David SKERRITT, Instituto de Investigaciones Historico-Sociales, Universidad Veracruzana, Apartado Postal 369, Xalapa, 91000 Veracruz (Mexico)

A negotiated ethnic identity: San Rafael, a French community on the Mexican Gulf Coast (1833-1930) (p. 455-474)

95.70.20 - French - André FRANQUEVILLE, ORSTOM, 213 rue La Fayette, 75010 Paris (France) The 500 years and Indian identity in Bolivia (Les 500 ans et l'identité indienne en Bolivie) (p. 475-495) 95.70.21 - French - Luc CAMBREZY, ORSTOM, 213 rue La Fayette, 75010 Paris (France)

Malinche. The betrayed memory of an Indian princess (Maliche. La mémoire trahie d'une princesse indienne) (p. 497-511)

95.70.22 - French - Michel AGIER, ORSTOM, 2 rue de la Charité, 13002 Marseille (France) Lia's destiny. Individual history and collective identity at the candomblé in Bahia (Le destin de Lia. Histoire individuelle et identité collective dans le candomblé de Bahia) (p. 513-530) 95.70.23 - French - Marie-José JOLIVET, ORSTOM, EHESS, 54 bd Raspail, 75006 Paris (France)

Creolisation and integration at the carnival in French Guiana (Créolisation et intégration dans le carnaval de Guyane) (p. 531-549)

95.70.24 - French - Bertrand F. GERARD, ORSTOM, 213 rue La Fayette, 75010 Paris (France) The frontier knows no limits (La frontière n'a pas de limites) (p. 551-568) 1994 - VOLUME 30, NUMBER 4 95.70.25 - French - Pascale METZGER, ORSTOM, Apartado 17-11-06596, Quito (Ecuador)

Contribution to problem analysis of the urban environment (Contribution à une problématique de l'environnement urbain) (p. 595-619)

95.70.26 - French - Anne-Lise PIETRI-LEVY, CNRS, Laboratoire Espace et Culture, 191 rue Saint-Jacques, 75005 paris (France) Urban systems and international relations. The Uruguayan littoral of the Rio de la Plata (Systèmes urbains et relations internationales. Le littoral uruguayen du Rio de la Plata) (p. 621-643) 95.70.27 - French - Christophe GRENIER and Claude de MIRAS, ORSTOM, Apartado 17-11-06596, Quito (Ecuador) The Galápagos Islands: From the myth of untouched land to the dispute amongst its predators (Les Galapagos : du mythe d'un espace vierge au partage disputé de la rente) (p. 645-666) 95.70.28 - French - Adolfo ALVAREZ, Agro-économiste Inifap-Sarh, Apartado 6-882, 00600 Mexico, D.F. (Mexico) Milk market and domestic self-sufficiency. The case of the Mexican tropical industry (Marché du lait et autosuffisance nationale. Le rôle de la filière tropicale au Mexique) (p. 667-686)

95.70.29 - French - Charles-Edouard de SUREMAIN, Département Santé, ORSTOM Montpellier, 911 av Agropolis, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1 (France) The Indians are not what they used to be. New identity awareness among a group of workers on a Guatemalan coffee plantation (Les Indiens ne sont plus ceux qu'ils étaient. Le nouvel espace identitaire d'un groupe d'ouvriers dans une grande plantation de café guatémaltèque) (p. 687-706)

95.70.30 - French - Laurence HUSSON, IRSEA-CNRS, 389 av du Club Hippique, 13084 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 2 (France) Migrants' portraits and trips. Biographies of Madurese proletarians in Surabaya, Indonesia (Portraits et parcours de migrants. Biographies de Madurais à Surabaya (Indonésie)) (p. 707-730) 95.70.31 - French - Emmanuel OKAMBIA, Université de Tours, 3 rue des Tanneurs, 37000 Tours (France) Acculturation in Africa: Informal debate in aid of management (Le processus d'acculturation en Afrique: les vertus de la palabre locale au service de l'entreprise) (p. 731-748)

95.70.32 - French - Georges Kossi KENKOU, Université de Bénin, Bénin City (Nigeria) Traditional social solidarity and cooperative promotion in rural Africa. Experiences of villager groups in Togo and Burkina Faso (Solidarité sociale traditionnelle et promotion des structures coopératives en milieu rural africain. Le cas de groupements villageois au Togo et au Burkina Faso) (p. 749-764)

95.70.33 - French - Dora RODRIGUEZ HEES, IBGE, rua Paulo Fernandes, 24, Rio de Janeiro, RJ (Brazil), Hervé THERY, and Philippe WANIEZ, CNRS/GIP Reclus, maison de la géographie, 17 rue Abbé-de-l'Epée, 34000 Montpellier (France) Maps of poverty in Brazil (La carte de la pauvreté au Brésil) (p. 765-783) 1995 - VOLUME 31, NUMBER 2

IDENTITY AND BELONGING IN SAHELIAN SOCIETIES 95.70.34 - English - Carola LENTZ, Institut für Ethnologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Drosselweg 1-3, 14195 Berlin (Germany) 'Tribalism' and ethnicity in Africa. A review of our decades of anglophone research (p. 303-328)

After some introductory remarks on the controversy over primordialist versus constructionist concepts of ethnicity, the article surveys the most important lines of anglophone research on ethnicity and tribalism in sub-Saharan Africa. More specifically, it reviews studies of tribalism in the context of labour migration and urbanization undertaken by British social anthropoligists in the 1950s and 1960s, the discussions centred on politicized ethnicity and nation-state integration in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly among political scientists, and finally, the study of the colonial 'invention of tradition' and 'creation of tribalism', which has been carried on by historians of Africa since the late 1970s. Some general thoughts on pre-colonial African social organisation and the colonial and post-colonial development of ethnic communities and discourses round out the discussion. (AFRICA SOUTH OF SAHARA, TRIBES, ETHNICITY, LABOUR MIGRATION, URBANIZATION, NATIONALISM, MODERNIZATION)

95.70.35 - French - Jacky BOUJU, Université de Provence Aix-Marseille-1, UMR Shadyc, Centre de la Vieille-Charité, 2 rue de la Charité, 13002 Marseille (France) What is Dogon "ethny"? (Qu'est-ce que l'" ethnie " dogon ?) (p. 329-363)

The analysis grounded on dogon ethnographic data clearly shows that what we call 'ethny' is in fact a political concept expressing collective identity and belonging. It translates the idea of a totality that include hierarchically the whole of the constitutive corporate groups arranging them according to the principle of anteriorit in the order of appearance. After showing that the reproduction of these elementary groups narrowly depended on practical rules of transmission, one can see that these rules define a field whose border always delimits a particular sphere of social identity. This gave the opportunity to confront the principle of transmission to the principle of reciprocity which symbolically appears as its inversion. This process of usual social rule inversion also appears in other interactive situations between strangers such as intermarriage. In such case, fieldwork shows that the exogamic rule, which constitutes local filiation groups, is inverted to an endogamic prescription. Thus we observe that ethnic identity is generally conceived, lived and indeed practiced as a sphere of endogamic sharing and that it is 'inpermeability' of the matrimonial borders which maintains the ideology that represents ethny as a maximal extension of the family. (MALI, ETHNIC GROUPS, MARRIAGE, TRADITION)

95.70.36 - French - Bruno MARTINELLI, Université de Provence Aix-Marseille-1, Centre des lettres et sciences humaines, 29 av. Robert-Schumann, 13621 Aix-en-Provence (France) Relations between individual and class and identity. Dogon et Mosse in Yatenga and the Séno plain, Burkina Faso and Mali (Trames d'appartenances et chaînes d'identité. Entre Dogons et Moose dans le Yatenga et la plaine du Séno (Burkina Faso et Mali)) (p. 365-405)

In the western part of the loop formed by the Niger, the Dogon (Mali) and Moose (Burkina Faso) societies have experienced deep changes during the last two centuries. Collective identities have been one of the main issues in the formation of new social patterns at the beginning of the colonial period. They were based on local and regional lineal membership structures and the deciphering of these makes it possible to understand the current trend towards contrast in the societies in the region. A comparative view of effect of lineal structures and historical processes on the evolution of social identities is therefore analysed. These identities finally emerge as complex realities that cannot be categorised unilaterally. This dynamic, hierarchic plurality of levels of identity and relationship between individual and class makes the Dogon and Mosse societies original. (BURKINA FASO, MALI, ETHNIC GROUPS, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, HISTORY)

95.70.37 - French - Claude FAY, Centre d'études africaines, EHESS, 54 bd Raspail, 75006 Paris (France) "Because we are the same". Identity, equivalence and homology in the Maasina, Mali ("Car nous ne faisons qu'un". Identités, équivalences, homologies au Maasina (Mali)) (p. 427-456)

In the Maasina, each ethnic group can be defined as an endogamous 'race' or 'type'. However, all the categories can also be relativised by describing them as the result of (a)symmetrical specialisations. Meetings between successive occupants of territories would seem to have established and confirmed 'ethnic' and/or 'political' attributes that define and relate local groups. The stories virtually define an oriented continuum of relations between groups from elimination to hoolaare blood pacts by way of simple subjection, separation of territories and marriage, with various possible combinations. Blood pacts mainly involve different 'ethnic' groups in the Maasina. They define the difference (and institute complementarity) as homology based on consubstantiality, generally accompanied by the forbidding of marriage. Symmetrically, the lineages defined as being 'of the same ethnic group' sharing the same territories have equivalent positions with the horizon being marriage or dispute. The position of the various relations and the defining of the resulting groups thus seem to stem from the different ways of refusing a strict identity of the groups (the same, with the same rights in the same territories). (MALI, ETHNIC GROUPS, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, CULTURAL CONTACTS)

95.70.38 - French -Pascale MAÏZI, CNEARC, 1101 av. Agropolis, 34033 Montpellier (France) The plural identity of women in the Yatenga Province, Burkina Faso (Identités plurielles des femmes moose du Yatenga (Burkina Faso)) (p. 485-499)

Going beyond a mere reflexion on the complementarity of male and female roles, the aim of this study is to assess the evolution of women's professional identity in rural Burkina Faso. It seems partly based on the transformation of Burkinabe institutions and in particular on the development of women's organisations. For today one can assert that they herald 'deep-rooted transformations in the system codifying rights and duties within gender interaction' (BISILLAT, 1989: 516) to which women aspire within a social environment whose rules and essential structures they, on the other hand, do not particularly wish to destroy. (BURKINA FASO, WOMEN'S STATUS, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, SOCIAL ORGANIZATION)

1995 - VOLUME 31, NUMBER 3

EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA

95.70.39 - French - Nathalie BONINI, UR 54 - ORSTOM, Département Sud., 6 rue Rochebrune, 93100 Montreuil (France) Tanzanian schooling patterns: The example of maasai herders (Parcours scolaires tanzaniens : l'exemple des pasteurs maasai) (p. 577-594)

The pastoral Maasai of Northern Tanzania have one of the lower rate of schooling of the country. When they go to school, very few children reach secondary school. The low schooling rate can be explained by the poverty of the educational supply but also by internal factors linked to their pastoral semi nomadic way of life. However, the majority of Maasai does not consider the fact of being unsuccessful at school (which means the coming back of children to their community after primary school and the lack of being socially promoted) as a school failure. More than diplomas, the important feature of the schooling is the ability of reading, writing and, most of all, speaking swahili (Tanzania national language). Drift from the land is very seldom for primary schools leavers who still have a place in their community. In fact, if the schooling of children has changed their traditional knowledge and destroy some of their practice, it has a relatively low impact on the Maasai society. (TANZANIA, ETHNIC GROUPS, EDUCATION, PRIMARY SCHOOLS, CHILDREN , SOCIALIZATION, SCHOOL FAILURE)

95.70.40 - French - Etienne GERARD, UR 54, Département Sud. Antenne ORSTOM, 01 B.P. 171, Bobo-Dioulasso (Burkina Faso) Schooling strategies and issues in Mali. The weight of educational strategies of the population in the functioning and evolution of state schools (Jeux et enjeux scolaires au Mali. Le poids des stratégies éducatives des populations dans le fonctionnement et l'évolution de l'école publique) (p. 595-615)

The populations in Mali make particular educational choices which form strategies. These are a response to both appraisal of existing scholastic facilities and the quality of the education dispensed, the taking into account of opportunities, contingencies and constraints or simple social features (including family and lineage composition) and finally a 'rationalisation' of the relations between cultural orders and a natural order to which social groups or simply individuals submit or in which they are involved because of their contacts with different environments (rural and urban) and domains (the sacred and the profane). These relations are themselves hinged on a principles axis - the Malinkés in this case - through educational strategies and not by the public educational authorities. The population thus mould the 'School' and induce evolution more than they submit to a 'scholastic order' defined by the state. (MALI, ENROLMENT RATE, SOCIALIZATION)

95.70.41 - French - Olivier MEUNIER, VSN ORSTOM, 63 rue hoche, 93700 Drancy (France) Basic teaching, education policies and educational strategies in a Hausa environment (Enseignements de base, politiques d'éducation et stratégies éducatives en milieu haoussa. Le cas de la ville de Maradi (Niger)) (p. 617-634)

Description of the situation in basic education in a big town (Maradi) in Niger in diachrony and then synchrony. Description of the problems resulting from the impoverishment of the two types of schooling (primary schools and Coranic schools) is followed by demonstration of the dynamics of their reformulation through the education policies of the Niger government and international agencies (the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) and also through the educational strategies of parents. It is shown how new initiatives can be taken in schooling by civil society when the state does not possess the means to meet demand for education. It is also shown what strategies are used by certain actors in society (parents associations, founders of private schools) to readjust their own demand within the legislative framework of the state. (NIGER, ENROLMENT RATE, EDUCATIONAL POLICY, PRIMARY SCHOOLS)

95.70.42 - French - Laurence PROTEAU, 63 rue de Malakoff, 93320 Châtillon (France) Schooling in Abidjan: Strategies and patterns (Le champ scolaire abidjanais : stratégies éducatives des familles et itinéraires probables) (p. 635-653)

Reconstitution of the school careers of pupils in Abidjan shows the strategies and 'arrangements' available according to the social position of the family and used to ensure that children remain in the educational system - whatever the cost - and gain qualifications. Although the economic recession is a threat for the educational strategies of the lower and middle classes, it has not caused the withdrawal of families or refusal of schooling but rather a broader variety of schemes, such as use of private education, strategic repetition of a school year, parallel recruiting, mobilisation of family and friends, scholastic migration, evening classes and above all choice of the children for schooling. Access to these strategies is determined by the social position of the family concerned. (COTE D'IVOIRE, ENROLMENT RATE, ECONOMIC RECESSION)

95.70.43 - French - Richard MARCOUX, Département de démographie, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Suc. "A", Montréal, QC H3C 3J7 (Canada)

School attendance and the demographic structure of households in urban environments in Mali (Fréquentation scolaire et structure démographique des ménages urbain au Mali) (p. 655-674)

Mali has one of the lowest rates of school attendance in the world. It was long believed that the phenomenon was caused mainly by inadequate schooling facilities. However, analysis of activities in urban environments reveals strong participation by children in subsistence activities in their households (family help, domestic work, etc.). In a context of the impoverishment of urban households in mali, a child can only be relieved of certain work so that he can attend school if his household can ensure its subsistence without the child's contribution. The question discussed is based on the family and sex distribution of labour in Mali societies. More specific attention is paid to the demographic composition of households in order to understand children's activities. This approach was found to be extremely conclusive and showed, in particular, the links between school attendance and family structures. Multivariate analysis shows that school attendance is ensured by factors that enhance the maintaining of a strucure in which young people, and especially girls, form a substantial proportion. More generally, as long as child labour is a necessity for a large number of households it will be difficult to ensure that a high proportion of children in Mali receive primary education. (MALI, ENROLMENT RATE, CHILD LABOUR, URBAN ENVIRONMENT, FAMILY COMPOSITION)

95.70.44 - French - Yacouba YARO, UR 54 - ORSTOM 02, B.P. 5472, Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso)

Scholastic strategies of households in Burkina Faso (Les stratégies scolaires des ménages au Burkina Faso) (p. 675-696)

Written on the basis of a socio-demographic survey from February 1992 to April 1993, this article on the scholastic strategies of households in Burkina Faso examines the different attitudes and practices of population in school attendance by their children. Analysis in three administrative units of the country (Séno, Tapoa and Kadiogo) shows the contrast between schooling situations in towns and the country in populations with different beliefs and different socioeconomic activities. Differences in schooling are not explained solely by the relationship between supply and demand for education. The analysis highlights the cultural, economic and religious determinants that affect the demand for scholing and evolution. It is noted that schooling is very precarious in strongly Islamic Séno and extremely animistic Tapoa, whereas schooling is on the increase in Ouagadougou, the administrative and economic capital, even if school attendance is uneven and varies according to the social status of the head of the household. In short, school attendance differs according to whether the household lies in the country or a town, is Islamic or animist and whether the head of the household is in a sector of economic activity that requires the children to work or not. The study shows that availability alone does not explain the scholastic strategies of households or the level of school atttendance in a country or a region. (BURKINA FASO, EDUCATION, ENROLMENT RATE, ISLAM, ANIMISM)

95.70.45 - French -Marc PILON, CEPED/ORSTOM, 15 rue de l'Ecole de Médecine, 75006 Paris (France) Determinants of school attendance of 6-14 years-old children in Togo in 1981. The contributions and limits of census data (Les déterminants de la scolarisation des enfants de 6 à 14 ans au Togo en 1981 : apports et limites des données censitaires) (p. 697-718)

The first stage of family educational strategies is that of sending children to school. In Africa, this does not yet concern all children (in the 6 to 14 age range). Inadequate schooling facilities and financial resources and the sex of the children do not account for all the differences observed. A sample of the 1981 census in Togo is used with two aims, firstly that of providing better knowledge of family determinants in school attendance and secondly that of demonstrating the potential of census and survey data in analyses. The results presented show the relation between school attendance and movements of children among families and that female heads of household are more favourable towards school attendance than men. After an approach providing much material but that is still largely exporatory, several types of analysis are proposed with a view to establishing a pluridisciplinary procedure. (TOGO, ENROLMENT RATE, METHODOLOGY, CENSUSES)

95.70.46 - French - Elisabeth DELIRY-ANTHEAUME, UR 5B, 8 allée des Vignes-Vierges, 78120 Rembouillet (France) The drawing up of new educational policies in Togo. Reality or virtual reality? (L'élaboration de nouvelles politiques éducatives au Togo. Réalité ou virtualité ?) (p. 719-737)

The cost-saving equired by the structural adjustment policy in Togo is calling the educational system into question. Nevertheless, new education and insertion policies have been drawn up during the democratic transition period. From the structural adjustment policy to the social dimension of adjustment and from the national conference to the states general on education, stress is laid on determination to ensure access of everybody to basic education and better matching of training and employment. However, in an unfavourable political and economic context, it is concluded that there is a gap between the ambitions announced and the slender means. (TOGO, EDUCATION, EMPLOYMENT, YOUTH, ECONOMIC RECESSION, DEMOCRACY)

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