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United States of America (Staten Island) 11

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION REVIEW

WINTER 1994 - VOLUME 28, NUMBER 4

96.11.1 - English - Alejandro PorteS and Richard Schauffler, The Johns Hopkins University (U.S.A.) Language and the second generation: Bilingualism yesterday and today (p. 640-661)

The language adaptation of second generation children is explored in the context of the history of linguistic absorption and bilingualism in America. Strong nativist pressures toward monolingualism have commonly led to the extinction of immigrant languages in two or three generations. Contemporary fears of loss of English dominance are based on rapid immigration during recent decades and the emergence of linguistic enclaves in several cities around the country. This article explores the extent of language transition and the resilience of immigrant languages on the basis of data from south Florida, one of the areas most heavily affected by contemporary immigration. Results from a sample of 2,843 children of immigrants in the area indicate that: 1) knowledge of English is near universal; 2) preference for English is almost as high, even among children educated in immigrant-sponsored bilingual schools; 3) preservation of parental languages varies inversely, with length of U.S. residence and residential locations away from areas of ethnic concentration. Hypotheses about other determinants of bilingualisim are examined in a multivariate framework. The relationships of bilingualism to educational attainment and educational and occupational aspirations are also explored. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, NATURAL LANGUAGE, MOTHER TONGUE, BILINGUALISM)

96.11.2 - English - M. Patricia Fernçndez-Kelly and Richard SCHAUFFLER, Johns Hopkins University Department of Sociology (U.S.A.) Divided fates: Immigrant children in a restructured U.S. economy (p. 662-689)

This essay is based on survey and ethnographic research among second-generation immigrants. The purpose is to investigate the meaning of segmented assimilation by comparing five groups of immigrant children: Haitians, Vietnamese, Cubans, Nicaraguans and Mexicans. We examine the effects of physical location, mode of reception, and membership in particular social networks on characteristics such as fluency in English, school performance, self-perception and occupational expectations among the various groups. We hypothesize that the experience of the new immigrants bifurcates in consonance with self and collective identifies. Defining oneself as an immigrant protects a child from some of the deleterious effects of assimilation. This is especially apparent among Haitians and West Indians for whom assimiation may entail becoming African Americans and, therefore, enduring stigma and diminishing opportunities. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION)

96.11.3 - English - Charles HIRSCHMAN, University of Washington (U.S.A.)

Problems and prospects of studying immigrant adaptation from the 1990 population census: From generational comparisons to the process of "becoming American" (p. 690-713)

With the loss of the question on parental birthplace in the 1980 and 1990 censuses, there are serious obstacles to current research on immigrant adaption based on the traditional logic of intergenerational progress. The tremendous diversity across contemporary immigrant streams from more than 40 country/region-of-origin groups, however, reinforces the singular importance of census data for national studies of the post-1965 immigrants and their children. A potentially useful research strategy is to examine variations in socioeconomic adaptation by duration of American residence among immigrants who arrived as children or teenagers. Exploratory investigation using this framework reveals a dominant pattern of successful adaptation with greater exposure to American society ("becoming American"), but also some mixed patterns that are more consistent with the segmented assimilation model. (UNITED STATES, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, METHODOLOGY, DURATION OF RESIDENCE)

96.11.4 - English - Leif Jensen and Yoshimi chitose, The Pennsylvania State University (U.S.A.)

Today's second generation: Evidence from the 1990 U.S. census (p. 714-735)

The prospects for today's second generation will be considerably shaped by their current social, economic and demographic status. This article provides a statistical portrait of children of immigrants by analysing data from the 1990 U.S. Census of Population and Housing. With the second generation defined as children under age 18 with at least one foreign-born parent, the study describes place of residence; household demographic, social and economic circumstances; household head's socioeconomic status; and characteristics of children themselves. Data on second-generation children are broken down by year of immigration of parents and child's nativity. Data for children with native-born parents are provided for comparison. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILES)

96.11.5 - English - Lisandro PƒREZ, Florida International University (U.S.A.) The household structure of second-generation children: An exploratory study of extended family arrangements (p. 736-747)

Using data from the Children of Immigrants Survey, the antecedents of extended family arrangements among immigrant households with children are examined. The incidence and form of such arrangements, especially the presence of grandparents, are analyzed in relation to single parenthood, national origin, cultural assimilation, and socioeconomic variables. The findings serve to underscore the complexity of the correlates of extended family arrangements. While there is a relationship with single parenthood, more research is needed on the economic basis for the presence of relatives in the household. The analysis uncovered the need to also treat presence of grandparents as an independent variable, especially in the cultural assimilation of children of immigrants. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION, ANCESTORS)

96.11.6 - English - RubŽn G. RUMBAUT, Michigan State University (U.S.A.)

The crucible within: Ethnic identity, self-esteem, and segmented assimilation among children of immigrants (p. 748-794)

Focusing on the formation of ethnic self-identities during adolescence, this article examines the psychosocial adaptation of children of immigrants from Asia, Latin America and the Caribbean. The data are drawn from a survey carried out in the San Diego and Miami metropolitan areas of over 5,000 children of immigrants attending the eigth and ninth grades in local schools. The sample is evenly split by gender and nativity (half are U.S. born, half foreign born). The results show major differences in their patterns of ethnic self-identification, both between and within groups from diverse national origins. Instead of a uniform assimilative path, we found segmented paths to identity formation. Detailed social portraits are sketched for each ethnic identity type. Multivariate analyses then explore the determinants of assimilative and dissimilative ethnic self-identities and of other aspects of psychosocial adaptation such as self-esteem, depressive affect, and parent-child conflict, controlling for gender, socioeconomic status, and national origin. The theoretical and practical implications of these results - especially the effects of acculturation, discrimination, location and ethnic density, of schools, parental socialization and family context, upon the psychosocial adaptation of children of recent immigrants to the United States - are discussed. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, ETHNICITY)

96.11.7 - English - Mary C. WATERS, Harvard University (U.S.A.)

Ethnic and racial identities of second-generation black immigrants in New York City (p. 795-820)

This article explores the types of racial and ethnic identities adopted by a sample of 83 adolescent second-generation West Indian and Haitian Americans in New York City. The subjective understandings these youngsters have of being American, of being black American, and of their ethnic identities are described and contrasted with the identities and reactions of first-generation immigrants from the same countries. Three types of identities are evident among the second generation - a black American identity, an ethnic or hyphenated national origin identity, and an immigrant identity. These different identities are related to different perceptions and understandings of race relations and of opportunities in the United States. Those youngsters who identify as black Americans tend to see more racial discrimination and limits to opportunities for blacks in the United States. Those who identify as ethnic West Indians tend to see more opportunities and rewards for individual effort and initiative. I suggest that assimilation to America for the second-generation black immigrant is complicated by race and class and their interaction, with upwardly mobile second-generation youngsters maintaining ethnic ties to their parents' national origins and with poor inner city youngsters assimilating to the black American peer culture that surrounds them. (UNITED STATES, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, YOUTH, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY)

96.11.8 - English - Min Zhou, University of California, Los Angeles (U.S.A.), and Carl L. BANKSTON III, Louisiana State University (U.S.A.)

Social capital and the adaptation of the second generation: The case of Vietnamese youth in New Orleans (p. 821-845)

This article investigates some of the ways in which social capital made available in an immigrant community contributes to, rather than hinders, the adaptation of the younger generation, in school and afterward. We contrast the assimilationist view with alternative arguments on ethnic resources as social capital. Based on a case study of Vietnamese youth in an immigrant community in eastern New Orleans, we explore how aspects of all immigrant culture serve as a form of social capital to affect the adaptational experiences of immigrant offspring. We have found that students who have strong adherence to traditional family values, strong commitment to a work ethic, and a high degree of personal involvement in the ethnic community tend disproportionately to receive high grades, to have definite college plans, and to score high on academic orientation. These values and behavioral and associational patterns are consistent with the expectations of their community and reflect a high level of social integration among Vietnamese youth. The findings indicate that strong positive immigrant cultural orientations can serve as a form of social capital that promotes value conformity and constructive forms of behavior, which provide otherwise disadvantaged children with an adaptive advantage. We conclude that social capital is crucial and, under certain conditions, more important than traditional human capital for the successful adaptation of younger generation immigrants. (UNITED STATES, VIET NAM, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION)

96.11.9 - English - Walter D. Kamphoefner, Texas A & M University (U.S.A.) German-American bilingualism: cui malo? Mother tongue and socioeconomic status among the second generation in 1940 (p. 846-864)

This study utilizes language data from the 1940 Census Public Use Sample to measure the socioeconomic impact of foreign mother tongue by comparing second-generation Germans who grew up speaking German and English respectively. The most striking contrast between the two groups was the much higher proportion of German speakers in the farm population. While Germanophones showed slightly lower levels of income, this was balanced by greater social stability. In fact, German speakers showed higher levels of homeownership and self-employment. As a whole, the disadvantages of a foreign mother tongue proved to be relatively minor, indeed negligible for this group. (UNITED STATES, GERMANY, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MOTHER TONGUE, BILINGUALISM, SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS)

96.11.10 - English - S.ÊA. Maani, University of Auckland (Australia) Are young first and second generation immigrants at a disadvantage in the Australian labor market? (p. 865-882)

This paper examines the assimilation hypothesis for young adult first- and second-generation immigrants in Australia. Models of the total weeks of unemployment and the number of spells of unemployment are examined as indicators of relative labor market conditions. The study differs from earlier work by focusing on young first- and second-generation immigrants and by utilizing information over four consecutive years of the Australian Longitudinal Survey (ALS) data, a comprehensive data set compiled for 1985-1988. The results consistently indicate that even when controlling for qualifications, both first- and second-generation immigrants are at a disadvantage. The results, however, support the hypothesis of declining disadvantage, as second-generation immigrants and those with more years in Australia had significantly more favorable conditions than recent immigrants both overall and within country of origin groups. (AUSTRALIA, IMMIGRANTS, SECOND GENERATION MIGRANTS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, LABOUR MARKET, DISCRIMINATION)

SPRING 1995 - VOLUME 29, NUMBER 1

Diversity and Comparability:

International Migrants in Host Countries on four Continents

96.11.11 - English - Wilawan KANJANAPAN, Academia Sinica, Taipei (Taiwan) The immigration of Asian professionals to the United States: 1988-90 (p. 7-32)

This article examines recent flows of Asian professionals to the United States based on the Immigration and Naturalization Service data for the fiscal years 1988-1990. Three specific dimensions of the Asian migration stream were investigated, namely, size, composition and mode of entry. The results show that Asians emerge as a dominant group in the immigration of all professionals. An examination of mode of entry indicates an existing demand for foreign professionals of certain occupational backgrounds in the U.S. labor market. Engineers and computer scientists represent this pattern as reflected by a heavy usage of the occupational preferences to enter the host country. Adjustment of status from temporary visas appears to be a common strategy. By contrast, health professionals were more likely to be admitted through kinship ties and the majority are new arrivals. The argument that the outflow of the highly trained Asians is simply a matter of migration and education is not fully supported by the data. (UNITED STATES, ASIA, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, SKILLED WORKERS, MIGRATION DETERMINANTS)

96.11.12 - English - Yen-Fen TSENG, Department of Sociology, Tunghai University, Taichung 40704 (Taiwan) Beyond "Little Taipei": The development of Taiwanese immigrant businesses in Los Angeles (p. 33-58)

Both in their choice to settle in predominantly noncoethnic neighborhoods and in their economic development, recent Taiwanese immigrants in Los Angeles represent a fundamental break with the past. It is this new type of economic development that brings an unprecedented impact on the society at large. However, these unique features of Taiwanese immigrant business and their implications to the host society remain understudied. Quantitative as well as qualitative methods were employed in this study. The data were obtained from document files, field observations, in-depth interviews, U.S. census data, and a telephone survey of 310 Taiwanese business owners in the greater Los Angeles area. The data analysis closely examined entrepreneurial process, ethnic integration, and industrial diversity among Taiwanese immigrant businesses. Provided with entrepreneurial capacity, Taiwanese enterprises grow rapidly within the context of Los Angeles's economic restructuring and dependency on Asian Pacific trade. (UNITED STATES, TAIWAN, METROPOLIS, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, PRIVATE ENTERPRISES)

96.11.13 - English - Christopher J. SMITH, The University at Albany, State University of New York (U.S.A.)

Asian New York: The geography and politics of diversity (p. 59-84)

This article describes and interprets some of the events associated with the demographic and economic restructuring that has occurred in Flushing, in the Borough of Queens in New York City. Since the liberalization of the U.S. immigration laws in 1965, many of New York's neighborhoods have been transformed by the rapid influx of immigrants. In the case of Flushing, the majority of newcomers have been Asians, particularly from China, Korea, and the Indian subcontinent. The introduction of Asian capital and enterprise into the neighborhood has revitalized what was considered to be an ailing economy and a sluggish housing market. From the perspective of some of the long-term residents, however, the costs of progress have outweighed the benefits. The paper examines the public discourse accompanying the Asianization of Flushing, centering on the conflicts that have emerged between capital and community, immigrants and long-term residents, Asians and non-Asians. (UNITED STATES, ASIA, METROPOLIS, IMMIGRANTS, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT)

96.11.14 - English - Guillermina JASSO, New York University (U.S.A.), and Mark R. ROSENZWEIG, University of Pennsylvania (U.S.A.)

Do immigrants screened for skills do better than family reunification immigrants? (p. 85-111)

It is sometimes thought that immigrants who are screened for occupational skills are likely to become more productive Americans than immigrants who gain admission on the basis of family ties to native-born U.S. citizens or to previous immigrants. However, the expected differential may be small or nonexistent because: 1) kinship immigrants have access to family networks; 2) whereas employers may screen for short-term productivity, family members may screen for long-term productivity; and 3) native-born U.S. citizens who sponsor spouses may be particularly adept at screening for long-term success. Longitudinal data on the 1977 immigrant cohort is used to compare initial and longer-term occupational outcomes among employment and kinship immigrants. Results indicate a narrowing of the differential, due both to higher rates of occupational downgrading among employment immigrants and of occupational upgrading among kinship immigrants. (UNITED STATES, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, SELECTIVE IMMIGRATION, FAMILY REUNIFICATION)

96.11.15 - English - Marta TIENDA, University of Chicago, 1155 E. 60th St., Chicago, IL 60637 (U.S.A.), and Audrey SINGER, U.S. Department of Labor (U.S.A.) Wage mobility of undocumented workers in the United States (p. 112-138)

This study addresses two fundamental questions about the economic assimilation of undocumented immigrants in the United States: 1) how different recently legalized immigrants are from all foreign-born persons and native-born whites; 2) whether wages of undocumented immigrants improve as they acquire greater amounts of U.S. experience and, if so, how these improvements are comparable to those of immigrants in general. We analyze the Legalized Population Survey and the Current Population Survey to assess the returns to U.S. experience and find positive returns to U.S. experience for both undocumented migrants and all foreign-born men. Returns to U.S. experience depend on region of origin. Undocumented immigrants from Mexico received the lowest wage returns and men from non-Spanish-speaking countries received the highest returns to U.S. experience. (UNITED STATES, ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS, WAGES)

96.11.16 - English - Rueyling TZENG, Academia Sinica, Taipei (Taiwan) International labor migration through multinational enterprises (p. 139-154)

This research studies international migration of company transferees. The main purposes are to address how their individual characteristics have influences on their overseas assignment and what kinds of migration patterns are created by the multinational business enterprises. U.S. firms in Taiwan are the primary study focus. By using both quantitative and qualitative data, the results show that although an overseas appointment is mainly based on individual competence, nationality, ethnicity and gender also play crucial roles. And multinationals are important channels for sustainable, return and circular migration. (UNITED STATES, LABOUR MIGRATION, TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS)

96.11.17 - English - D. A. COLEMAN, Oxford University (U.K.) International migration: demographic and socioeconomic consequences in the United Kingdom and Europe (p. 155-206)

People of non-European origin from Commonwealth countries have predominated in postwar immigration to the United Kingdom. That migration neutralized the previously dominant pattern of emigration and increased U.K. population by about 3 million people through immigration and higher fertility, with only slight effects upon the age distribution. Overall economic consequences have never been comprehensively evaluated but are probably minor. Social effects have been more important, arising from the geographical concentration of the immigrants in urban areas, their automatic entitlement to vote, and pervasive measures to enforce racial equality and accommodate new cultural diversity. (UNITED KINGDOM, IMMIGRATION, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS, SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION)

96.11.18 - English - James JUPP, Center for Immigration and Multicultural Studies From "White Australia" to "Part of Asia": Recent shifts in Australian immigration policy towards the region (p. 207-228)

This article examines the impact on Australia of population movements in the Asia-Pacific region since 1945, with special reference to the period since 1975 that marked the termination of the restrictive "White Australia Policy". That policy, which had its origins in racist theories popular at the end of the nineteenth century, isolated Australia from its immediate region and kept it tied to its European and, more specifically, British origins. The impact of population, trade and capital movements in the region has been such as to make Australia 'part of Asia'. Nevertheless, public opinion has yet to accept these changes fully, especially when they involve changing the ethnic character of the resident population. It is concluded that the generation which has grown up since 1945 and which is now starting to dominate politics and intellectual life will find it easier to reorient Australia than did the previous generation, despite continuing ambivalence in public attitudes. The presence in Australia of large numbers of permanent residents and citizens of Asian origin is a necessary factor in expediting change. (AUSTRALIA, ASIA, IMMIGRATION, IMMIGRATION POLICY, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, SOCIAL CHANGE)

96.11.19 - English - Hania ZLOTNIK, Population Division, United Nations Secretariat, New York (U.S.A.) The South-to-North migration of women (p. 229-254)

This article challenges the conventional wisdom that, since the circa 1974 discontinuation of policies encouraging temporary labor migration, female migration has significantly outnumbered male migration. Drawing on data from Belgium, Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States, the article shows that the proportion of women in gross immigration is lower when the flows originate in developing rather than in developed countries. Women outnumber men only in terms of net migration. Each receiving country has its own variations on these generalizations, with the chief variables being the receiving countries' admission policies and the stage in migration history of the expatriate population. (DEVELOPING COUNTRIES, DEVELOPED COUNTRIES, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, WOMEN, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)

SUMMER 1995 - VOLUME 29, NUMBER 2

96.11.20 - English - Jon GOSS and Bruce LINDQUIST, University of Hawaii (U.S.A.)

Conceptualizing international labor migration: A stucturation perspective (p. 317-351)

This article applies the theory of structuration to international labor migration using case study material from the Philippines. It first provides a brief review of the functional and structural approaches to understanding labor migration and the theoretical impasse that has been created between them. It then reviews several attempts to resolve this impasse, including systems and networks approaches; these solutions are rejected on theoretical and empirical grounds. We suggest that migrant institutions may be a more appropriate mid-level concept than households or social networks to articulate various levels of analysis. We develop this concept in the context of the structuration theory of Anthony Giddens and attempt to apply this to the Philippines, concluding that this framework is eminently suited for further research on international labor migration. (PHILIPPINES, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, LABOUR MIGRATION, THEORY)

96.11.21 - English - Nicholas VAN HEAR, University of Oxford (U.K.) The impact of the involuntary mass "return" to Jordan in the wake of the Gulf crisis (p. 352-374)

This article investigates the impact of the involuntary movement to Jordan of about 300,000 Palestinians in the wake of the Gulf crisis of 1990-91. It explores the character of the population that arrived en masse in Jordan and whether their arrival burdened or benefitted that country. Neither migrants as commonly conceived nor a fully settled minority community in Kuwait and other Gulf states, their case throws doubt on the utility of terms like return and repatriation since a substantial proportion of this population had only minimal experience of Jordan, the 'home' to which they 'returned'. The involuntary migration compounded other effects of the Gulf crisis on Jordan and exacerbated the country's already serious economic problems. Integration of the returnees was painful. But contrary to initial expectations, the mass arrival did not result in unmitigated disaster and may have contributed to an economic recovery in Jordan, suggesting that there may be potentially beneficial windfall effects of sudden population influxes, even when they are involuntary and disorderly. (JORDAN, RETURN MIGRATION, FORCED MIGRATION, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS)

96.11.22 - English - Rebeca RAIJMAN, University of Chicago (U.S.A.), and Moshe SEMYONOV, Tel-Aviv University and University of Illinois (U.S.A.) Modes of labor market incorporation and occupational cost among new immigrants to Israel (p. 375-394)

The present study contributes to the literature on international migration by examining social, demographic and contextual factors that influence modes of labor market incorporation and occupational cost among new immigrants during their first years after migration. The data for the analysis were obtained from the 1983 Census of Population conducted by Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics. The analysis focuses on men who immigrated to Israel between 1979 to 1983. Although most immigrants are able to join the economically active labor force shortly after arrival, they do so by adopting different strategies and at a substantial occupational cost. The data reveal that the likelihood of finding employment, the mode of labor market incorporation, and the size of the occupation cost are significantly affected by geocultural origin, occupation in the country of origin, and individual-level demographic and human capital resources. The meaning of the differentiated effects are discussed in detail. The findings point toward two central aspects that should be examined in the study of labor market incorporation of new immigrants: employment status and occupational cost. (ISRAEL, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, LABOUR MARKET)

96.11.23 - English - Carol ZABIN and Sallie HUGHES, University of California, Los Angeles (U.S.A.)

Economic integration and labor flows: Stage migration in farm labor markets in Mexico and the United States (p. 395-422)

This article examines the probable effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on migration from Mexico to the United States, disputing the view that expansion of jobs in Mexico could rapidly reduce undocumented migration. To the extent that NAFTA causes Mexican export agriculture to expand, migration to the United States will increase rather than decrease in the short run. Data collected in both California and the Mexican State of Baja California show that indigenous migrants from southern Mexico typically first undertake internal migration, which lowers the costs and risks of U.S. migration. Two features of employment in export agriculture were found to be specially significant in lowering the costs of U.S. migration: first, working in export agriculture exposes migrants to more diverse social networks and information about U.S. migration; second, agro-export employment in northern Mexico provides stable employment, albeit low-wage employment, for some members of the family close to the border (especially women and children) while allowing other members of the family to assume the risks of U.S. migration. (UNITED STATES, MEXICO, LABOUR MIGRATION, TEMPORARY MIGRATION, AGRICULTURAL WORKERS)

96.11.24 - English - James WILEY, Hofstra University Undocumented aliens and recognized refugees: The right to work in Costa Rica (p. 423-440)

The right to work is a basic human right extended to refugees under international law. Its benefits to that group can be obfuscated by legalities in the host state, a situation caused partly by the refugees' recognized status and their need to maintain that status. This produces the ironic result that undocumented aliens have greater access to employment, though illegally, than do many recognized refugees. Costa Rica exemplified this circumstance during its experience inproviding asylum to both groups from 1979 to 1990. This article address the Costa Rican situation to determine the impact of the undocumented aliens' presence on refugees' right to work. (COSTA RICA, REFUGEES, ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS, EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNTIES, HUMAN RIGHTS)

96.11.25 - English - Ian McALLISTER, University College, University of New South Wales (Australia) Occupational mobility among immigrants: The impact of migration on economic success in Australia (p. 441-468)

It is an almost universal finding in scholarly research that immigrants fare worse economically than individuals born in the country. This disadvantage usually has been explained either by the operation of competitive labor markets or by employer discrimination. By analysing national survey data collected among immigrants to Australia, this article examines immigrant occupational mobility. For immigrants, the results show economic disadvantages are caused by the act of migration itself rather than by economic experiences in their new country. Occupational status is depressed at the beginning of the immigrants' Australian working career, and this in turn diminishes occupational status throughout the working lives of the immigrants and accounts for the economic disadvantages they face. (AUSTRALIA, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, LABOUR MARKET, DISCRIMINATION)

96.11.26 - English - Sean-Shong HWANG, University of Alabama at Birmingham (U.S.A.), Rogelio SAENZ and Benigno E. AGUIRRE, Texas A & M University (U.S.A.) The SES selectivity of interracially married Asians (p. 469-491)

How do outmarried Asians compare to their inmarried counterparts and to their spouses in terms of socioeconomic status? We attempt to answer this question by testing hypotheses derived from assimilation, exchange, and economic theories. The study is conducted using a representative U.S. sample of married Asians. Results based on multinomial logit analyses indicate that Asian women with lower educational attainment have a higher propensity to outmarry racially, irrespective of the race of their husbands. Corresponding findings for Asian men provide weak evidence of negative selectivity. Furthermore, those who outmarry racially tend to marry persons with lower levels of education than themselves. While challenging a few conventional wisdoms ingrained in sociological and economic theories, these findings support several others. (UNITED STATES, ASIA, IMMIGRANTS, MIXED MARRIAGE, SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS)

96.11.27 - English - Michael J. WHITE, Brown University (U.S.A.), Lorenzo MORENO, Mathematica Policy Research, Inc., and Shenyang GUO, Case Western Reserve University

The interrelation of fertility and geographic mobility in Peru: A hazards model analysis (p. 492-514)

The effect of place of residence and migration on fertility and the effect of fertility on migration have been long-standing concerns in population studies. This article makes use of novel longitudinal data from the Peru Demographic and Health Survey and associated statistical techniques to estimate these interrelationships for women of childbearing age. In the case of fertility outcomes, our results are consistent with the findings of others that age and education are negatively associated with fertility. We also find that residence in a city (versus countryside) predicts lower fertility, but residence in an intermediate size town has no effect. Our results are somewhat less robust for migration outcomes, but they do indicate that education and having fewer children are positively associated with geographical mobility. Town and city residents are more likely to be movers; yet, among movers, these more urbanized individuals exhibit slightly lower rates of subsequent mobility. When compared to previous research, our results demonstrate the value of detailed temporal measurement of the outcome event and its associated covariates. (PERU, GEOGRAPHIC MOBILITY, DIFFERENTIAL MIGRATION, DIFFERENTIAL FERTILITY, FERTILITY DETERMINANTS, MIGRATION DETERMINANTS)

96.11.28 - English - Tony WATERS, University of California, Davis (U.S.A.) Towards a theory of ethnic identity and migration: The formation of ethnic enclaves by migrant Germans in Russia and North America (p. 515-544)

This article explores the determinants for the maintenance of ethnic identity by comparing six groups of migrant Germans. The groups are eighteenth century German peasants migrating to Volga Russia, thirteenth century migrants to Latvia, seventeenth century bureaucrats and traders migrating to Moscow/St. Petersburg, eighteenth century peasant migrants to Pennsylvania, nineteenth century Volga German migrants to the American Midwest. Notably, three of these groups assimilated into the host society, while three of them formed ethnic enclaves. Comparison of the six cases indicated that what determined whether a group would maintain its identity or not depended on whether individuals could move their inheritable economic base which determines who the primary reference group will be. (GERMANY, EMIGRANTS, HISTORY, MIGRANT ASSIMILATION, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)

96.11.29 - English - Thomas J. ESPENSHADE, Princeton University (U.S.A.) Using INS border apprehension data to measure the flow of undocumented migrants crossing the U.S.-Mexico frontier (p. 545-

This article examines how data on INS border apprehensions are related to the flow of undocumented migrants crossing the southern U.S. border. Its centerpiece is a demographic model of the process of unauthorized migration across the Mexico-U.S. frontier. This model is both a conceptual framework that allows us to see theoretical linkages between apprehensions and illegal migrant flows, and a methodological device that yields estimates of the gross number of undocumented migrants. One implication of the model is that, for the first time, the relation between apprehensions and illegal flows can be examined empirically. We show that the ratio in each period between apprehensions and the undocumented flow is simply the odds of being located and arrested on any given attempt to enter the United States clandestinely. In addition, data for 1977-1988 suggest that the simple linear correlation between the number of apprehensions and the volume of illegal immigration is approximately 0.90 and that the size of the illegal migrant flow is roughly 2.2 times the number of Border Patrol arrests. The article concludes with a discussion of the conditions under which it is appropriate to use INS apprehensions data as an indicator for the flow of undocumented U.S. migrants. (UNITED STATES, MEXICO, ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS, MIGRATION MEASUREMENT)

AUTUMN 1995 - VOLUME 29, NUMBER 3

96.11.30 - English - Richard D. ALBA, Nancy A. DENTON, Shu-yin J. LEUNG and John R. LOGAN, State University of New York at Albany (U.S.A.) Neighborhood change under conditions of mass immigration: The New York City region, 1970-1990 (p. 625-656)

This article investigates the shifting racial and ethnic composition of neighborhoods in the Greater New York metropolitan region in the 1970-1990 period, during which the region has been one of the nation's major receiving grounds for new immigrant groups. Neighborhoods are defined in terms of census tracts, and changes in neighborhood composition are tracked with data from the 1970, 1980, an 1990 censuses. Four racial/ethnic groups are considered: non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic blacks, Hispanics and Asians. The analysis, which exploits the neighborhood transition table (Denton and Massey, 1991), reveals a somewhat paradoxical set of developments. On the one hand, there is increasing racial and ethnic complexity in neighborhoods throughout the region: more and more neighborhoods contain multiple groups; fewer and fewer are ethnically or racially homogeneous. On the other hand, there is a crosscutting trend: all-minority neighborhoods, occupied by blacks or blacks and Hispanics, are growing in number. We demonstrate further that these two patterns are associated with other characteristics of neighborhoods, such as the median incomes of their households and whether they are located in cities or suburbs. (UNITED STATES, METROPOLIS, NEIGHBOURHOODS, IMMIGRANTS, URBAN DEVELOPMENT, ETHNIC COMPOSITION)

96.11.31 - English - Greta A. GILBERTSON, Fordham University Women's labor and enclave employment: The case of Dominican and Colombian women in New York City (p. 657-670)

The enclave hypothesis holds that obligations stemming from a common ethnicity not only permit utilization of past investments in human capital, but help to create opportunities for mobility. This implies that both men and women benefit from broader reward structure involving more than just wages. Yet few studies examine whether immigrants in co-ethnic-owned firms, particularly women, benefit from these other forms of compensation, such as advancement opportunities. Using data from a survey of Colombian and Dominican immigrants in New York City, this research examines whether Dominican and Colombian women working in Hispanic-owned firms in New York City are advantaged relative to women in other labor market sectors in earnings-returns to human capital, opportunities for skill acquisition, and fringe benefits. The results indicate that enclave employment provides women with low wages, minimal benefits, and few opportunities for advancement. (UNITED STATES, METROPOLIS, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, ETHNICITY, WAGES)

96.11.32 - English - Nancy S. LANDALE, The Pennsylvania State University (U.S.A.), and Nimfa B. OGENA, Mahidol University (Thailand) Migration and union dissolution among Puerto Rican women (p. 671-692)

This study examines the relationship between migration and union dissolution among Puerto Ricans, a Latino subgroup characterized by recurrent migration between Puerto Rico and the U.S. mainland. Based on pooled life-history data from comparable surveys undertaken in Puerto Rico and the United States, we find that: 1) Puerto Rican women who have lived on the U.S. mainland have markedly higher rates of union disruption than those with no U.S. experience; and 2) even net of a wide variety of possible explanatory factors, the relatively high rates of union instability among first and second generation U.S. residents and return migrants are strongly related to recent and lifetime migration experience. The results suggest that the weak social ties of migrants provide limited social support for their unions and few barriers to union disruption. (UNITED STATES, PUERTO RICO, IMMIGRANTS, WOMEN, END OF UNION)

96.11.33 - English - Arne GIESECK, Ullrich HEILEMANN and Hans Dietrich von LOEFFELHOLZ, Rheinisch-WestfŠlisches Institut fŸr Wirtschaftsforschung (Germany) Economic implications of migration into the Federal Republic of Germany, 1988-1992 (p. 693-709)

An analysis of the effects of the last wave of migration into West Germany on labor markets, public finances and economic growth, this study points at the often ignored fact that the migrants were rather successful in finding jobs and thus helped in eliminating labor shortages in certain industries. Simulations with a macroeconometric model for the FRG indicate that in 1992 the GDP was almost 6 percent higher than without migration, that 90,000 jobs were created and that migration created a surplus of DM14 billion in the public sector, compared to the baseline. This study also makes clear, however that these effects mainly depend on a quick absorption of migrants by FRG labor markets, and as to the social system, the relief may be only transitory. (GERMANY, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, LABOUR MARKET, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS)

96.11.34 - English - Max WINGEN, Federal German Ministry for Family and Senior Citizen Affairs (Germany) Immigration to the Federal Republic of Germany as a demographic and social problem (p. 710-721)

Addressing the question of immigration to Western Europe and especially to Germany from east and southeast Europe and from developing countries of the South, this article considers whether such immigration can compensate for reductions in population in developed countries. It is argued that the demographic deficits of an aging population can only be corrected to a limited extent through immigration. Any solution, in order to be effective, must include a simultaneous increase in the birthrates of Germany and other European Community countries. With particular regard to future social development in Germany and the EC, it would be advisable for governments to effect measures that will provide both for controlled admissions of immigrants from outside the EC and an increase in local reproductive capabilities. (GERMANY, WESTERN EUROPE, IMMIGRATION, DEMOGRAPHIC AGEING, POPULATION DECREASE, NATURAL INCREASE)

96.11.35 - English - Santina BERTONE, Victoria University of Technology (Australie), Gerard GRIFFIN, Monash University (Australia), and Roderick D. IVERSON, University of Melbourne (Australia) Immigrant workers and Australian trade unions: Participation and attitudes (p. 722-744)

Most studies of unionized, immigrant workers have argued that such workers have lower levels of participation in and hold different attitudes toward their unions than do nonimmigrant union members. Drawing on a questionnaire survey of members of six Australian trade unions, this article questions this consensus. We argue that country of origin - in particular whether the union member was born in a non-English-speaking or an English-speaking country - does not, of itself, lead to different levels of union participation or different union attitudes. A closely related variable, the level of English language ability, does influence some elements of participation and attitudes. (AUSTRALIA, IMMIGRANT WORKERS, TRADE UNIONS)

96.11.36 - English - Linda LOW, National University of Singapore (Singapore) Population movement in the Asia Pacific region: Singapore perspective (p. 745-764)

Inequalities in wages and incomes, accompanied by flows of trade, capital and technology and the phenomenon of globalization, may be some reasons for the significant movement of people in the Asia Pacific region. Changes in topologies, magnitude, composition of the direction of such movement of people have been identified in the literature. This article takes these trends into the context of Singapore as both an importer and exporter of labor. Of significance is its regionalization policy which allows it to export its capital to tap the land and labor resources as well as markets of emerging economies in Asia. In this respect, its policy to train foreign workers as is similarly done in South Korea to upgrade skills and technology transfer may initiate a new outlook toward movement of people. In contrast to the traditional view that population movement is disruptive and threatening to both recipient and sending countries, it may be viewed more positively and as contributing to economic growth and development. (SINGAPORE, SOUTHEASTERN ASIA, INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS)

96.11.37 - English - Patrick ONGLEY and David PEARSON, Victoria University of Wellington (New Zealand) Post-1945 international migration: New Zealand, Australia and Canada compared (p. 765-793)

New Zealand's immigration policies and trends since 1945 are compared with those of Canada and Australia. For most of this period, Australia has pursued the more expansive immigration policy while Canada and New Zealand have tended to link immigration intakes to fluctuations in labor demand. All three countries initially discriminated against non-European immigrants but gradually moved towards nondiscriminatory policies based on similar selection criteria and means of assessment. New Zealand has traditionally been more cautious than both Canada and Australia in terms of how many immigrants it accepted and from what sources, but it has recently followed the other two in raising immigration targets and encouraging migration from nontraditional sources, particularly Asian countries. Historical, global and national factors are drawn upon to explain the degree of convergence between these three societies. (NEW ZEALAND, CANADA, AUSTRALIA, IMMIGRATION POLICY, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS)

WINTER 1995 - VOLUME 29, NUMBER 4

96.11.38 - English - Gary P. FREEMAN, University of Texas at Austin (U.S.A.) Modes of immigration politics in liberal democratic states (p. 881-902)

The politics of immigration in liberal democracies exhibits strong similarities that are, contrary to the scholarly consensus, broadly expansionist and inclusive. Nevertheless, three groups of states display distinct modes of immigration politics. Divergent immigration histories mold popular attitudes toward migration and ethnic heterogeneity and affect the institutionalization of migration policy and politics. The English-speaking settler societies (the United States, Canada, and Australia) have histories of periodically open immigration, machineries of immigration planning and regulation, and densely organized webs of interest groups contesting policies. Their institutionalized politics favors expansionary policies and is relatively immune to sharp swings in direction. Many European states (France, Britain, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Belgium) experienced mass migration only after World War II and in a form that introduced significant non-European minorities. Their immigration politics is shaped by what most see as the unfortunate consequences of those episodes and are partially institutionalized and highly volatile and conflictual. European states until recently sending countries (Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Greece) deal with migration pressures for the first time in their modern histories, under crisis conditions, and in the context of intensifying coordination of policies within the European Union. We should expect the normalization of immigration politics in both sets of European states. Although they are unlikely to appropriate the policies of the English-speaking democracies, which should remain unique in their openness to mass immigration, their approach to immigration will, nevertheless, take the liberal democratic form. (IMMIGRATION POLICY, COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS, LIBERALISM)

96.11.39 - English - Hermann KURTHEN, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (U.S.A.)

Germany at the crossroads€: National identity and the challenges of immigration (p. 914-938)

In both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, German history was characterized by shifting political borders and territorial expansions and contractions. These changes correlate with extreme phases in the definition of nationhood: very broad, inclusive ones and very narrow, exclusive ones. Current problems with immigration and nationhood date back to the origins of the nation-building. They reflect unresolved contradictions between exclusive ideas of the nation-state and inclusive ideas of republican and universal principles of individual human and civil rights; between rigidly interpreted citizenship regulations and a liberal asylum law; and between the official notion of national homogeneity and increasing diversity created by immigration and refugee movements. The unforeseen consequences of unification, particularly increased immigration, have exacerbated existing tensions between exclusive and inclusive notions of nationhood. German democracy and political culture is challenged to readjust and redefine national interests and identity in the 1990s. In this process Germany must adapt to its status as an immigration society and the unavoidable consequences of increasing ethnocultural diversity. (GERMANY, IMMIGRATION, NATIONALITY)

96.11.40 - English - Andrew CONVEY and Marek KUPISZEWSKI, School of Geography, University of Leeds (U.K.) Keeping up with Schengen: Migration and policy in the European Union (p. 939-963)

There is an inescapable relationship between the existence of migration movements and the resulting policies which are adopted by the authorities of the area concerned towards encouraging these movements, or more commonly towards attempting to control or to reduce them. This in turn means that the migration researcher must not only look at the effects of policy and changes in policy, important though this is, but must also attempt to understand the changing political factors which fuel the formation of policy. This paper aims to bring together some of the wide variety of policy issues and responses which may be observed in Europe at the present time and in the recent past, and in particular to make an assessment of the approaches being taken by the European Union member states as a whole, and also by so-called Schengen group of member states. This article also attempts to look at the perceptions of these policies and their effects from the point of view of both the "western" and the "eastern" European countries, as migration policy issues are rarely one-sided. In conclusion, it considers some of the research issues and problems which are raised by geographers and others working in this area, difficulties which might be implied by our possibly flippant title, "Keeping Up with Schengen". (WESTERN EUROPE, MIGRATION POLICY)

96.11.41 - English - Mehmet UGUR, University of Greenwich, London (U.K.) Freedom of movement vs. exclusion: A reinterpretation of the 'insider'-'outsider' divide in the European Union (p. 964-999)

This article argues that the question of free movement vs. exclusion within the European Union (EU) can be addressed satisfactorily only if we move away from the narrow state-centrism inherent in the current debate. What is required is to 'open' the state concept and examine the implications of state-society relations for EU policymaking. Once this is done, it can be seen that the exclusionist stance of the immigration policy and the essentially intergovernmental nature of the policymaking are due to an implicit contract between states and constituents implied by the concepts of nationality and citizenship. According to this perspective, the focus on the state or the political elite alone is too one-sided and misses the more complex factors bearing upon EU policymaking in this area. (WESTERN EUROPE, MIGRATION POLICY)

96.11.42 - English - Nasra M. SHAH, Kuwait University (Kuwait)

Stuctural changes in the receiving country and future labor migration. The case of Kuwait (p. 1000-1022)

Structural changes in the labor force of the receiving country can provide some important clues to the speed and nature of replacement of migrant workers by indigenous ones. This article analyzes changes in the national labor force with regard to volume, age and sex composition, retention in the labor force, productivity, type of occupation, and sector of activity. Changes in the above features during the last two decades indicate that the median age of the national male labor force remains low, its concentration in the public sector has increased, and its participation in production and manual work has declined further. The labor force participation of females has increased substantially, and they comprised 31% of the national labor force in 1993. Kuwaiti females participate mainly in the professional or technical and clerical occupations. The number of non-Kuwaiti females in the labor force has increased, with domestic servants as a major category. The above structural changes suggest that the national labor force is growing in a manner that implies a continued long-term dependence on foreign workers. Dependence on expatriates is likely to be greatest for occupations involving maintenance of infrastructures and personal services. (KUWAIT, MANPOWER INCREASE, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, IMMIGRANT WORKERS)

96.11.43 - English - William F. S. MILES, Northeastern University, Boston (U.S.A.) Minoritarian francophonie. The case of Israel, with special reference to the Palestinian territories (p. 1023-1040)

This article examines the minoritarian status of a nonethnic group identity: Israeli Francophonie. Nonethnic minority status is particularly interesting for it represents a nonascriptive and voluntary category of group identity. In the case of Israel, Francophonie has evolved its mainly North African (and hence socially disparaged) associations in the 1950s and 1960s to becoming an immigrant Ashkenazi and "frenchified Sephardic" phenomenon today. Francophone intellectuals promote Israeli Francophonie as an adjunct to Zionism, for it represents a cultural alternative to the Americanization of Israeli society. Common French language also diffuses the cleavages (religious versus secular versus nationalistic) which otherwise challenge the unity of the Jewish state. Associational, educational, cultural and religious institutions reflect the diffuse, dispersed and discrete nature of Israeli Francophonie; while there are categories of Francophonie, there is no francophone community per se. The future of Francophonie in Israel is a function of media technology, pluralistic self-redefinition, and political relations with France. Regarding the latter, the originally religiously-based Palestian Francophonie based on the Latin Patriarchate is being supplemented by diplomatic efforts to extend French cultural influence among Arabs both in Israel and in the occupied territories. (ISRAEL, FRANCE, LANGUAGE MINORITIES)

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