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France (Paris) 46

POPULATION

NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 1997 - 52nd YEAR, NUMBER 6

98.46.5 - French - Catherine ROUGERIE, Dares, 20 bis rue d'Estrées, 75700 Paris 07 SP (France), and Jocelyn COURTOIS

A step towards adulthood: The first real job (Une étape du passage à l'âge adulte : l'emploi qui compte) (p. 1297-1328)

By the age of 25, the great majority of young people are employed on a permanent work contract. But indicators based on the type of contract provide an incomplete picture of the changes which may occur in the process of obtaining employment.

A good starting point for a more subjective approach to this question is provided by the Passage à l'âge adulte ('Coming of Age') survey, conducted by INED in 1993. In this young people were asked to describe their first real job. It emerges that the great majority of respondents found this job before the age of 25 but only after a relatively long process since it very often took longer than two years. Some had already had several jobs before finding their real one; others found it straight away. Some had experienced long-term employment; others had not. And behind the different patterns of insertion, there are the processes whereby initial ambitions are subject to varying degrees of reduction.

Subjective exploration makes it possible to identify patterns of differential behaviour in which, for example, social origins are related to the type of itinerary accomplished. The subjective approach cannot replace the classic objective questions, but it does indicate the importance of reflection on individual situations that are becoming less sharply defined, and on itineraries that no longer run smoothly from education to stable employment and may on the contrary involve a 'backward step', such as returning to live with parents after a disappointing first experience of work. (FRANCE, YOUNG WORKERS, EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES, LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION)

98.46.6 - French - Maks BANENS, UFR Philosophie et Sciences Humaines et Sociales, Université de Picardie (Jules Verne), Chemin du Thil, 80025 Amiens Cedex (France)

E-mail : banens@danaid.univ-montp3.fr

Demographic reconstitution of French départements during the 19th century (Reconstituer la démographie départementale française du XIXe siècle) (p. 1329-1360)

This paper describes the methods used in the reconstitution of past populations for French départements during the 19th century, developed mainly by Etienne van de Walle and Noël Bonneuil.

It begins by outlining two different approaches on which reconstitution methods are based and suggests some methodological hypotheses. It continues with an explanation of how these methods were applied to a selected département, Hérault. The underlying hypotheses, the results obtained from them, and their margins of error are analyzed at every stage of the reconstitution.

In the second part of the article a reconstitution method which takes account of criticisms is presented. The basic approach uses van de Walle's method but incorporates, as did Bonneuil, the number of deaths in each age group. Although this method was designed for application to 19th-century populations, the approach can also be applied to other populations for which our knowledge is incomplete. (FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, METHODOLOGY, POPULATION RECONSTRUCTION, REGIONAL DEMOGRAPHY)

Sexual Behaviours and Social Changes

Dossier coordinated by Michel BOZON

98.46.7 - French - Michel BOZON, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75020 Paris (France), et Osmo KONTULA, Population Research Institute, Helsinki (Finlande)

E-mail : booz@ined.fr

Sexual initiation and gender (Initiation sexuelle et genre (p. 1367-1400)

Data from surveys on sexual behaviour conducted in twelve European countries are used to study the evolution in age at first intercourse over the last fifty years. The age of women at sexual initiation fell markedly during this period, whereas a smaller change was observed for men; and age at first intercourse stabilized everywhere in the 1980s. The AIDS epidemic developed in this context of relative stabilization and although it has produced no change in the calendar of sexual initiation, the conditions of first intercourse have been modified, with use of the condom increasing at the expense of oral contraception. In this general context, two gender-based patterns of sexual behaviour can be clearly identified. In the countries of southern Europe, the behaviour of women has become more like that of men, though women still have first intercourse significantly later. In the Nordic countries, the ages of men and women at sexual initiation have been similar for several decades. There are numerous indicators, however, that in both northern and southern Europe women experience sexual initiation very differently from men. (EUROPE, SEXUALITY, PREMARITAL SEX BEHAVIOUR, SEX DIFFERENTIALS)

98.46.8 - French - Jacques MARQUET, Université Catholique de Louvain, Collège Jacques Leclercq, Unité de sociologie, Place Montesquieu 1, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium), Philippe HUYNEN, Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, Brussels (Belgium), and Alexis FERRAND, Université de Lille I (CNRS-CLERSE), Lille (France)

Models of sexuality within the normative influence of the social network (Modèles de sexualité conjugale : de l'influence normative du réseau social) (p. 1401-1438)

This article presents analyses based on data from the survey on Comportements sexuels and réactions au risque du SIDA en Belgique ('Sexual behaviour and reactions to the risk of AIDS in Belgium'). This was a telephone survey of 3719 individuals from a representative sample of the population aged between 15 and 59. The models of sexuality within couples theme provide the basis for exploring three aspects of partners' sociability and the normative influence of their social networks: the relationship between the ideal norms of the actors and the actual norms in the network comprising the circles of family, friends and colleagues; the links between the norms of the actors and their subjective perception of the social control exercised by the various circles of sociability; the structural and relational characteristics of the network, in particular of the circle of friends, likely to influence this relationship. The analyses show the normative influence of the network, and especially of the family circle, on the norms of ego. They also show that this normative influence is likely to be conditioned by the subjective perception of social control, as well as by certain structural characteristics of the network. (BELGIUM, MARITAL UNION, SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, SOCIAL NORMS)

98.46.9 - French - Christiane DELBÈS, Fondation nationale de gérontologie, 49 rue Mirabeau, 75016 Paris (France), and Joëlle GAYMU, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75020 Paris (France)

When ardour cools: The sex lives of the over-50s (L'automne de l'amour : la vie sexuelle après 50 ans) (p. 1439-1484)

Old age has traditionally been viewed as a period when sexual activity ceases. Yet studies of sexual behaviour have shown that some people continue to lead active and satisfying sex lives into old and even very old age. Older people differ of course from younger people in several respects (they are less likely to have a partner, they have sex less often, their 'art of loving' is less varied, etc.) but a comparison of the Simon (1970) and ACSF (1992) surveys has shown that this is not entirely an effect of advancing age (associated with ill health and in particular sexual dysfunction) or of life cycle (loss of partner, 'erosion' in a couple, etc.). The richer sex lives of the older people in the 1992 survey compared with those in 1970 indicates that there was and perhaps still is a generation effect. Observation of the 1921-40 cohorts, who have benefited from the sexual revolution, shows that contrary to what is seen in cross-sectional observation, there was no contraction of the sexual repertoire. Reaching orgasm by manual or oral caresses became more frequent, and levels of post-coital well-being and sexual satisfaction were higher. The differences observed in 1992 between younger and older people are thus due partly to the fact that the latter have lived all or part of their sex lives at a time when sexual expression was more controlled. For many sixty-year-olds the sexual revolution occurred too late to modify their patterns of behaviour. (FRANCE, SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, AGED)

98.46.10 - French - Marie-Ange SCHILTZ, CAMS/EHESS, 54 bd Raspail, 75006 Paris (France)

Young homosexual itineraries in the context of HIV: Establishing life styles (Parcours de jeunes homosexuels dans le contexte du VIH : la conquête de modes de vie) (p. 1485-1538)

This article analyses the itineraries of young male homo/bisexuals based on a survey conducted in the gay press in 1995. These young men face a two-fold difficulty: like their peers they are making the transition from adolescence to adulthood, but in the course of this transitional period they also have to come to terms with a specific sexual orientation. Although tolerance has increased, homosexuals still find it hard to gain social acceptance, notably from their families. In addition, being homosexual involves a particular life style. The result is that during this period of their lives, young homosexuals have to face the double concern of finding a place in a circle of tolerant relations and creating a way of life which will allow a full development of their sexual orientation. To this there is now added a dramatic epidemiological context, in the form of the very high incidence of HIV in this group. Young men who choose this way of life are exposed to a very serious health risk from the start of their sexual careers. General population studies are used to examine whether the process whereby young homosexuals become autonomous is similar to that of other young people and to what extent their trajectory is influenced by their marginal sexuality. (FRANCE, YOUTH, HOMOSEXUALITY, SOCIALIZATION, LIFE STYLES)

JANUARY-APRIL 1998 - 53th YEAR, NUMBER 1-2

" Population and History "

Dedicated to Jean-Noël Biraben, Jacqueline Hecht and Jacques Houdaille

Coordinators: J. Dupâquier, M. Garden, C. Théré and H. Leridon

The History of Demographic Thought and Enquiry

98.46.11 - French - Éric VILQUIN, Institut de Démographie, Université Catholique de Louvain, 1 Place Montesquieu, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve (Belgium)

E-mail : vilquin@demo.ucl.ac.be

Cyrano de Bergerac as a (distorting) mirror of knowledge and ideas about population in the 17th century (Cyrano de Bergerac, miroir (déformant) des connaissances et des idées démographiques du XVIIe siècle) (p. 13-28)

Cyrano de Bergerac (the real as opposed to the dramatic character) was a free-thinking author of the mid-17th century, whose utopian tales - imaginary journeys to the moon and sun - contain numerous comments and anecdotes about life and death, men and women, sexuality and fertility, and other themes of interest to the demographer. Unlike what has been done for other utopian authors, however, any attempt to identify a consistency in these disparate elements in order to outline 'the demographic doctrine of Cyrano' would be pointless. This provocative free-thinker was more concerned to shock than to present a consistent analysis. Nonetheless, just as his fantastical machines and wild theories represent a skiliful vulgarization of the science of his day, so many details in his output can be viewed as caricatural yet accurate indicators of the knowledge and attitudes of the period concerning reproduction, eugenics, health, longevity, and even demographic ethics. (HISTORY, HISTORICAL SOURCES, PHILOSOPHY, AGNOSTICS, POPULATION THEORY)

98.46.12 - French - Jean-Marc ROHRBASSER and Jacques VÉRON, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

E-mail : rohrbass@ined.fr ; veron@ined.fr

Leibniz and mortality: Measurement of 'apparences' and calculation of average life (Leibniz et la mortalité : mesure des " apparences " et calcul de la vie moyenne) (p. 29-44)

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz produced a series of manuscripts dated 1680 on the calculation of life expectancy, with a view to estimating accurately the value of life annuities. To calculate what he referred to as the 'average and presumed life', he adopted two fundamental hypotheses about the equal vitality of individuals and the equal mortality of years. These allowed him to model the mortality process. Employing an approach which was both probabilistic and empirical, Leibniz elaborated a life table based on quantitative data and various qualitative estimates. He thus calculated the value of the average life at different ages. As elsewhere in his writings, Leibniz sought to combine a theoretical approach to phenomena with a careful observation of reality, which sometimes resulted in ambiguity. In these manuscripts, however, Leibniz adopted a rigorous approach in his treatment of questions that are fundamental to demography. (HISTORY, HISTORICAL SOURCES, METHODOLOGY, LIFE TABLES, LIFE EXPECTANCY

98.46.13 - French - Éric BRIAN and Christine THÉRÉ, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

E-mail : brian@ined.fr ; ch_there@ined.fr

The chequered career of Louis Messance (2 January 1734-19 April 1796) (Fortune et infortunes de Louis Messance (2 janvier 1734-19 avril 1796)) (p. 45-70)

Louis Messance, author of Recherches sur la population de la France (1766) and Nouvelles Recherches (1788), is considered to be one of the founders of demography. He yet remains a little known figure. This article retraces his birth, life and death and last works, enabling us to consider the social and intellectual itinerary of this financial officer, who became wealthy and who repeatedly offered his services from the creation of the Provincial Assemblies to the middle of the Revolution. After a succession of failures he published a curious essay on religious, moral and political arithmetics. (HISTORY, DEMOGRAPHERS, BIOGRAPHIES)

98.46.14 - French - Carol BLUM, State University of New York, Stony Brook, New York 11794-3359 (U.S.A.)

A populationist controversy in 18th-century France: Polygamy (Une controverse nataliste en France au XVIIIe siècle : la polygamie) (p. 93-112)

This article is an analysis of the controversy in 18th-century France over a proposed legalizing, for populationist reasons, of 'simultaneous' polygamy. The subject had been discussed in the polemics of chiefly Protestant inspiration at the end of the previous century (Leyser, Bayle), but it was essentially after 1721, the year of publication of the so-called 'populationist' letters in Montesquieu's Lettres persanes, that the idea of having two or more wives began to be widely discussed.

The arguments in favour of marrying several women combined populationist concerns and a 'rights of man' discourse. Arbuthnot's discovery of the sex ratio in 1712 reduced the enthusiasm of some authors (Prémontval, Cerfvol, Laugier) for an unequal distribution of women, whereas for other authors (Rantzow, Pilati di Tassulo), the demographic and even commercial advantages that polygamy was claimed to offer took priority over all else.

Divorce (serial polygamy) was eventually legalized at the time of the Revolution, but simultaneous polygamy, in which one male enjoys an advantage at the expense of others, an idea associated since Montesquieu with despotism and in clear contradiction with the principle of equality, was rejected. (FRANCE, HISTORY, POPULATION THEORY, POLYGAMY, PRONATALISM)

98.46.15 - French - Yves CHARBIT, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

E-mail : charbit@ined.fr

Malthus as populationist? A cross-disciplinary reading (Malthus populationniste ? Une lecture transdisciplinaire) (p. 113-137)

Although the first Essay on the Principle of Population of 1798 clearly exposed the risk of overpopulation in relation to the means of subsistence, the subsequent editions, the Summary view of the Principle of Population and the Principles of Political Economy show that Malthus had considered the risk of an inadequate population growth. One may take this as evidence of fundamental contradictions, or attempt to identify the underlying consistency in his thought. After a brief review of the central concepts of Malthusian theory, four demo-economic models are presented. In the first, which corresponds to the first edition of the Essay, population is regulated by mortality. The second model systematizes the demo-economics of fertility and nuptiality. The third is based on the role of 'effective demand'. The fourth model combines these elements, and introduces a generally neglected concept: moral restraint. In epistemological terms, the conclusion is that a cross-disciplinary perspective, which integrates demography, economics and Malthus' religious morality, is necessary if we are to identify the underlying unity of his thought. (HISTORY, MALTHUSIAN THEORY, MODELS, INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH)

98.46.16 - French - Carmen Beatriz LOZA, Max-Planck Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte, Wilhelmstrasse 44, Berlin (Germany)

E-mail : loza@mailmac.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de

Use of the quipu and the Spanish colonial administration (Du bon usage des quipus face à l'administration coloniale espagnole) (p. 139-159)

This article examines the problem of the legal recognition of the quipu in the 'law of the Indies'. It explores the reasons why the crown and officials came to accept the information (about population and taxation) provided by this native instrument, which took the form of a series of knotted threads, of various colours, by means of which large quantities of information could be recorded. The quipu was based on a system of decimal numbering system, and it could be used to perform calculations without systematic use of abacuses. The process whereby the quipu came to be recognized is studied by establishing a chronology of the process of transaction between the Indians and the officials based on the quipu. We have tracked from 1550 their first official decoding and their admission in juridical matters, up to the attribution of a statute to the quipu by the colonial administration from 1570. An analysis of trial records and the body of laws, establishes the authority of the quipu in the 16th century, and illustrates the acceptance of an arithmetical knowledge and a technology that was specific to the Indians. (PERU, HISTORY, DATA COLLECTION, COLONIAL COUNTRIES, TECHNOLOGY)

98.46.17 - French - Cem BEHAR, Department of Economics, Bogaziçi University, 80815 Bobek, Istanbul (Turkey)

E-mail : behar@hamlin.cc.boun.edu.tr.

Sources for the demographic history of the Ottoman Empire: The tahrirs (censuses) of 1885 and 1907 (Sources pour la démographie historique de l'empire ottoman : les tahrirs (dénombrements) de 1885 et 1907) (p. 161-177)

The Ottoman censuses of 1885 and 1907, plus their related population registers, are a rich source of information on one of the lesser known aspects of the history of the Ottoman Empire. These documentary sources have hitherto only been used to produce totals for provinces and regions. Yet the registers are in fact an invaluable source for the study of fertility, marriage, and family structures in the collection of states and territories that made up the Ottoman Empire (which at this time comprised a large part of the Balkans and the Middle East). This article presents these two censuses and highlights their importance as documentary sources for the demographic and social history of this group of countries. (WESTERN ASIA, DATA COLLECTION, HISTORICAL SOURCES, ENUMERATION, POPULATION REGISTERS)

INED's New Historical Survey: 1500-1700

98.46.18 - French - Isabelle SÉGUY, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

E-mail : seguy@ined.fr

J.-N. Biraben's survey of the population of France from 1500 to 1700. Presentation - Sources - Bibliography (L'enquête sur la population de la France de 1500 à 1700 de J.-N. Biraben : Présentation - Sources - Bibliographie) (p. 181-214)

J.-N. Biraben's retrospective survey to determine population change in France since 1500 is based on the very first civil registration sources. Because of the period under review and the sources employed, a detailed presentation is required, to examine the difficulties encountered and the methodological choices involved. This article also reviews the state of the data collection for the numerical part, which has been completed, and the nominative part, currently under way. (FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, METHODOLOGY, POPULATION DYNAMICS, VITAL STATISTICS)

98.46.19 - French - Jean-Noël BIRABEN and Didier BLANCHET, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

Essay on the population of Paris and the surrounding area since the 16th century (Essai sur le mouvement de la population de Paris et de ses environs depuis le XVIe siècle) (p. 215-248)

The national survey to reconstitute population change in France could not omit Paris, its largest city, representing possibly 15% of the total urban population, even though the civil registration registers were burned by the Commune in 1871. Of the 5 million individual records that were destroyed, covering the period 1515-1860, 2.9 million have been reconstituted by the official commission of civil registration, approximately 0.2 million in the second reconstitution performed by the Archives of Paris, 56 000 prior to 1650 were recopied by the Laborde team, and roughly the same number by Guiblet. When we include the various other copies that have been made, the total number of individual vital records recovered can be estimated at 3.3 million.

This disparate material, that comparison with the statistical tabulations of the day shows to be less representative for the earlier periods, provides the basis for a numerical reconstitution of the population growth of Paris. We have also analyzed the registers of 87 of the 202 parishes in a 20km radius of Paris. Excepting some discrepancies for which there are historical explanations, the high degree of consistency observed in the annual variations suggests that the curve for Paris is close to reality.

We have also used the most reliable censuses for Paris, which give 294 000 inhabitants in 1565, 220 000 after the siege of 1590, 440 000 in 1636, 480 000 in 1684, perhaps 529 000 in 1767, and 609 000 in 1792. Despite many attempts to check the growth of Paris (1548, 1644, 1672, 1719 ... ) the city's population was stable only between 1672 and 1719, at the time of the creation of four new 'satellite' towns. (FRANCE, CAPITAL CITY, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION DYNAMICS, VITAL STATISTICS, ENUMERATION, POPULATION RECONSTRUCTION)

98.46.20 - French - Noël BONNEUIL, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

E-mail : bonneuil@ciloas.ined.fr

Processing missing data in series produced from parish registers (Traitement des données manquantes dans les séries issues des registres paroissiaux) (p. 249-270)

The Biraben survey 1500-1700 of parish registers involves series from which data are missing. The most satisfactory technique now available for filling these gaps is the ARIMA econometric models for time series. The procedure involves selecting which of the available co-series are correlated with the series to be completed; a model is then identified, validated and projected so as to gradually complete the period for which information is missing. Trials with the survey's complete series are used to judge the method's potential on this type of temporal data. Examples are gven. (FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, METHODOLOGY, DEFECTIVE DATA)

Analysis of Demographic Facts and Behaviour

98.46.21 - French - Etienne VAN DE WALLE, Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania, 244 McNeil Building, Philadelphie, PA 19104-6298 (U.S.A.)

E-mail : etienne@psci.sas.upe

For a demographic history of abortion (Pour une histoire démographique de l'avortement) (p. 273-289)

Prior to the 19th century, the sources for the study of abortion in the west are not statistical but literary, medical, religious and legal, and give little indication of its demographic weight. It is, however, possible to study the frequency of the contexts in which abortion is mentioned: for example, by marital status of the mother, type of motivation, approval or disapproval of the author of the quotation, probable effectiveness of the methods used. The frequency of references to abortion can also be compared with those regarding alternative practices such as infanticide. Our examination of the very crude sources that are available, indicates that there is no compelling reason to conclude that abortion was in the past anything else than an unreliable, dangerous and rare practice, and with no demographic impact. The less dangerous methods were probably ineffective, while the drastic measures were only used by desperate unmarried girls and prostitutes. (WESTERN EUROPE, HISTORY, ABORTION, HISTORICAL SOURCES)

98.46.22 - French - Jean-François NAUD, Bertrand DESJARDINS and Hubert CHARBONNEAU, Programme de recherche en démographie historique, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Suc. A, Montréal, QC H3C 3J7 (Canada)

E-mail : naudje@ere.Umontreal.ca

The components of biological kinship in a regime of natural fertility: The example of old Quebec (Les composantes de la parenté biologique en régime de fécondité naturelle : l'exemple du Québec ancien) (p. 291-310)

This article is intended as a descriptive analysis of biological kinship in a population subjected to a regime of natural fertility. The population used is that of Canda under French rule, and in particular the second generation of Canadians by birth. The data comes from the Population register of old Quebec (Demographic History Research Programmne, University of Montreal). The analysis is at the individual level and is concerned with the size of the close biological kinship, seeking to identify the reasons for its variation and examining whether it can be predicted from less exhaustive data. The results obtained are primarily a picture of kinship in conditions of natural fertility, and indications which tend to show that biological kinship could indeed be estimated from fairly limited data in a population subject to some stability. (CANADA, PROVINCES, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, NATURAL FERTILITY, METHODOLOGY)

98.46.23 - French - Jacques DUPÂQUIER, Institut de France, 23 quai de Conti, 75270 Paris Cedex 06 (France)

London or Paris? A great debate in political arithmetic (1662-1759) (Londres ou Paris ? Un grand débat dans le petit monde des arithméticiens politiques (1662-1759)) (p. 311-325)

The first problem tackled by the practitioners of political arithmetic was how to measure a population and its growth without censuses. The city of London provided an excellent example for this exercise, thanks to its collection of Bills of Mortality.

After an initial calculation by Graunt (1662), Petty gave the question an emotive dimension through his determination to demonstrate that London had overtaken Paris. A protracted polemic resulted, with contributions by Kersseboom, Maitland and Süssmilch. The latter ended the controversy by showing that the population of London could not be estimated from the annual average of births, nor that of Paris from the annual average of deaths. In the meantime, London had in fact taken the lead, experiencing a strong growth between 1666 and 1728. (FRANCE, ENGLAND, CAPITAL CITY, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, POPULATION ESTIMATES)

98.46.24 - French - Olivier ZELLER, Centre Pierre Léon, Université Lumière Lyon II, Lyon (France)

For a socioeconomic study of small towns: The example of Belley in 1695 (Pour une étude socio-démographique des petites villes : l'exemple de Belley en 1695) (p. 327-358)

The population census conducted at Belley in 1695 for the purposes of the capitation (poll tax) is of sufficiently high quality that it can be used for a differential analysis of family structures by economic activity, membership of order and sex, as well as by the head of the household's wealth. Despite its small size (2 500 inhabitants), Belley is found to be a tertiary town in which the various groups being studied differed clearly by family size, structure and composition, by their ratio of female population, the frequency of domestic servants and by marital status. (FRANCE, SMALL TOWNS, CENSUSES, SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY, SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIFFERENTIALS)

98.46.25 - French - Antoinette FAUVE-CHAMOUX, 2 rue Emile Faguet, 75014 Paris (France)

The urban surplus of women in pre-industrial France and the role of domestic service (Le surplus urbain des femmes en France préindustrielle et le rôle de la domesticité) (p. 359-377)

As a result of migratory movements and the differential mortality of men and women, the female population exceeded that of males in most towns in 18th-century Europe. The urban centres of Ancien Régime France had large numbers of women living alone, either single or widowed, and who worked for a living. Many of the youngest were domestic servants and came from rural backgrounds. High levels of mobility among young people are a feature of the European family model.

The models of the formation of the western family developed by John Hajnal and Peter Laslett identify domestic service as a parameter of self-regulation in societies experiencing population growth, where marriage becomes increasingly late and selective. This schema of demographic and social operation under 'Malthusian' controls usually involves a correlation between high levels of celibacy, and of illegitimate births, and the presence of domestic servants.

This article is intended not to reopen the debate on the models of family formation in Europe, but as a contribution to assessing the role of domestic servants - young women who left their homes and went to work in another household - in the formation of Ancien Régime urban populations. (FRANCE, HISTORY, CITIES, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, DOMESTIC WORK, SPINSTERS)

98.46.26 - French - René LE MEE, EHESS, Laboratoire de démographie historique, 54 bd Raspail, 75006 Paris (France)

E-mail : bily@ehess.fr.

Cholera and the question of insanitary housing in Paris (1832-1849) (Le choléra et la question des logements insalubres à Paris (1832-1849)) (p. 379-397)

The appearance of cholera in Europe in 1830 sparked a debate about its causes. Did the disease spread by contagion or by infection? Was the solution to isolate the victims or neutralize the centres of infection? The disease's social character became clear in Paris in 1832, when medical considerations were overshadowed by ideological controversy.

Public health experts used statistical evidence to show the existence of excess mortality in the working-class districts of the capital, due mainly they argued to poor housing which favoured the development of miasmas. The second epidemic, in 1849, bore out this view. Excess mortality levels were still above average in the city's working-class districts but had fallen in the historic centre where unhealthy housing had been cleared. The relationship between epidemics and insanitary housing was confirmed in the south-eastern districts where slum housing remained.

Recognition of the public health dimension of the problem opened the way for legislation on insanitary housing. Action against slum housing acquired political significance as part of a new urban policy. (FRANCE, CAPITAL CITY, HISTORY, CHOLERA, HOUSING CONDITIONS, DIFFERENTIAL MORTALITY, URBAN PLANNING)

98.46.27 - French - Isabelle SÉGUY, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

Bibliography of Jean-Noël Biraben (Bibliographie de Jean-Noël Biraben) (p. 401-413)

(FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, BIBLIOGRAPHIES)

98.46.28 - French - Christine THÉRÉ, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

Bibliography of Jacqueline Hecht (Bibliographie de Jacqueline Hecht) (p. 415-423)

(FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, BIBLIOGRAPHIES)

98.46.29 - French - Marie-Claude LUNAZZI, INED, 133 bd Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20 (France)

Bibliography of Jacques Houdaille (Bibliographie de Jacques Houdaille) (p. 425-436)

(FRANCE, HISTORICAL DEMOGRAPHY, BIBLIOGRAPHIES)

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