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JOURNAL OF POPULATION, 1997, Vol. 3, N? 2

BULAN RAJAGUKGUK, Omas.

Analysis of contraceptive switching in Indonesia.

This paper is focused on contraceptive switching in Indonesia. Since a woman might use more than one method of contraception during her reproductive period, she can contribute more than one contraceptive use interval to the data. Some studies of contraceptive switching have used statistical techniques which assume independence between switching but this assumption can be violated because the likelihood of switching might be correlated. Hence contraceptive switching varies not only across groups of contraceptive users but also across contraceptive users with the same socioeconomic characteristics. Hence the consequences of this contraceptive users' effect for the relationship between socioeconomic, demographic and contraceptive-related characteristics of users and contraceptive switching in Indonesia is analysed through the use of random-effects logistic models. The data used for the analysis is from the 1991 Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey. The findings confirm the results of previous studies that a number of socioeconomic and demographic factors influence the likelihood of switching contraception. Among these factors, contraceptive-related factors such as the method being used before switching, the duration of use at switching and the reason for switching, affect contraceptive switching most. The results also indicate that there is correlation between intervals for the same woman. This implies that there are other factors which have not been observed and contribute to the differentials of switching contraception across women with the same socioeconomic characteristics.

(INDONESIA, CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS, CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE, CONTRACEPTION CONTINUATION).

English - pp. 97-117.

O. Bulan Rajagukguk, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2 & 3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia.

demofeui@indo.net.id.

***

UTOMO, Budi.

STD knowledge and treatment seeking behavior and condom use among selected high risk behavior groups of population in North Jakarta, Surabaya, and Manado.

The objective of this paper is to assess the extent of STD knowledge and treatment seeking behavior and condom use among selected high risk groups of population, notably, sailors and seaport laborers, truckers, and female commercial sex workers (CSW), in three seaport cities in 1996: North Jakarta, Surabaya, and Manado. The survey used a cross-sectional survey design with a structured questionnaire to collect, through interview, self-reported behavioral data related to STD/HIV. A two-stage cluster sampling was used to obtain sample of 200 to 400 respondents for each target group for each city. Most of respondents aged between 20 and 40 years, had low educational level. Two-third of male respondents were married, and the majority of female CSW respondents were in divorced status. Respondents' STD knowledge was limited to syphilis, gonorrhea, and AIDS. The knowledge seemed to refer more to the "word" rather than to the disease, mixing up the word of syphilis or gonorrhea with other STDs. "Pain and hot when urinating" was perceived as a symptom related to STD. The practice of STD self-treatment was common. More than half of those with STD related symptom sought medical treatment, particularly from private medical practice. Substantial proportion of those with STD related symptom did not seek any medical treatment. About half of male respondents ever visited female CSW. The risk of ever had STD was eight times higher for those who ever visited female CSW than those who never visited female CSW. Among male respondents, use of condom at last sexual contact with female CSW was very low, below 10%. Among female CSW respondents, use of condom at their last sexual contact varied between cities and between localization and non-localization from 15 to 50%, but consistent condom use was much lower, from one to 25%.

(INDONESIA, SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES, CONDOM, POPULATION AT RISK, PUBLIC HEALTH, KAP SURVEYS).

English - pp. 119-138.

B. Utomo, Center for Health Research, University of Indonesia, Indonesia.

usr20122@indosat.net.id; budiut@hotmail.com.

***

HANCOCK, Peter J.

Industrialisation, the state and education: Their role in "demographic improvement" among a cohort of rural factory women in West Java.

The research incorporates a generational study with an emphasis on the opinions, attitudes and beliefs of the female respondents themselves, which are compared and contrasted with those of their mothers. In essence the research explores the impacts of industrialisation on the culturally-grounded status of women in West Java and around Banjaran in 1996/97. Status of women is analysed in terms of decision making power in the household, control of income, control of the voting women's human resource (factory labour) and within the realm of gender relations in Banjaran, both in the household and the village. The social and economic impacts and outcomes of industrial development upon cultural values, attitudes and traditional employment of women are important to the demographic impacts apparent in the findings of this paper.

(INDONESIA, WOMEN?S STATUS, INDUSTRIALIZATION, EDUCATION OF WOMEN, CULTURAL CHANGE).

English - pp. 139-157.

P. J. Hancock, Edith Cowan University, Churchlands, WA 6018, Australia.

***

FATHONAH, Siti.

Contraceptive use dynamics in Indonesia.

The role of contraceptive use dynamics in shaping the contraceptive prevalence structure and in determining its impact on fertility becomes increasingly important for family planning program, policy makers and program managers. Relatively few analyses of contraceptive use dynamics exist for developing countries. The lack of such studies is that the data required are not often collected. This article is intended to fill in the gaps by analysing the five-year calendar data derived from the 1994 Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey (1994 DHS). The five-year calendar data on contraceptive use, pregnancy, termination and reason for discontinuation of contraceptive use analyzed using the life table methodologies provide meaningful insight on the quality of contraceptive use in Indonesia. It is found that the median duration of use is longest for the IUD and implant, while shortest for condom/intravag. About 27% of all Indonesia contraceptive users discontinue the use of their chosen method within a year. The reasons for discontinuation vary across subgroups of women. Method failure is associated more with discontinuation of traditional method, while method related reasons such as health concern or inconvenience of use are more likely to be associated with discontinuation of modern method, mainly IUDs, injectables and implants. There are more important factors that differentiate women on discontinuation of contraception, e.g., area of residence, region, education, age, and contraceptive intent. These findings on discontinuation enabled the family planning program to provide more realistic and focused services to their clients. In conclusion, this analysis emphasizes the importance of examining the quality of contraceptive use in Indonesia to achieve greater appreciation of the factors that affect contraceptive discontinuation, switching behavior, and use-failure. Special attention should be addressed to health concerns as an important issue for the most popular modern methods and to the minority of women who discontinue use within a year and do not switch to another method.

(INDONESIA, CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE, CONTRACEPTIVE USAGE, CONTRACEPTION CONTINUATION, CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS, CONTRACEPTION FAILURES).

English - pp. 159-196.

S. Fathonah, Population and Family Planning Research and Development Center, National Family Planning Coordinating Board, Jakarta, Indonesia.

***

JOURNAL OF POPULATION, 1997, Vol. 3, N? 3

ADIOETOMO, Sri Moertiningsib.

Quality of care in family planning services: Indonesian family life survey 1993.

This article presents findings of survey on Quality of Care in Family Planning collected as a Part of the Indonesia Family Life Study in 1993 (IFLS 1993). The results support perceptions reflected in the literature that indicators and measures of quality of care in family planning are not simple and difficult to obtain. Information collected from this survey fail to explain the quality of care expected. However, some information such as communication between client and provider is found to be significantly related to the duration of contraceptive use.

(INDONESIA, FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMMES, PROGRAMME EVALUATION).

English - pp. 197-222.

S. M. Adioetomo, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2&3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia.

demofeui@indo.net.id.

***

SUMARNO, Hadi.

Distribution of age at first marriage in Java-Bali.

Woman's age at marriage is one of the important proximate determinant of fertility. A number of research have been done to explain marriage patterns across age, cohort, and socioeconomic factors. One of the powerful models that often used to explain the marriage pattern is Coale-McNeil model. The purpose of this study is to determine the Java and Bali marriage patterns using Coale-McNeil marriage model. Data used are based on the 1991 Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey. The study shows that there is quite a great variation in mean age of first marriage across provinces. It was also found that the mean age of first marriage changes across cohorts. The younger cohorts tend to marry at older age.

(INDONESIA, AGE AT MARRIAGE, FIRST MARRIAGE, MODELS, GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, TRENDS).

English - pp. 223-235.

H. Sumarno, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia.

ppm-mat-ipb@mipabogor.or.id.

***

TJIPTOHERIJANTO, Prijono.

Gender issues and human resource development in public sector: An Indonesian case.

The development policies in Indonesia are based on the principle of quality and harmonious partnership between men and women. This principle is deeply ingrained in the State Ideology, Pancasila, and Constitution of 1945. Consequently, this principle of equality is also embodied in all regulations and legislative acts of the Republic of Indonesia, including the GBHN adopted every five years by the People's Consultative Assembly. The GBHN provides direction for the formulation of the Five Year Development Plan. Indonesia, in 1984 also ratified the convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, as stipulated in Act No. 7/1984. Neglecting the endeavor of women in economic development in particular and national development in general is an unwise decision. Indonesia's large population is the basic asset for development. The more so if every citizen regardless of their sex, would fully and effectively participate therein. However, data show that the status of women generally in the society and particularly in the bureaucracy system is lower than what men can achieve. Therefore, the efforts to attain the women's role and status have to be explored in the implementation phase. Besides the level of education, social value of most Indonesian people which perceives female as housekeeper rather than the head of household brings a difficulty for female to reach high position in government office. For example there is a conflicting interest between husband and wife when a wife gets a promotion to other place. In many cases husband does not agree to accompany his wife. Consequently, women refuse the promotion. On the contrary, when husband gets a promotion to other place, in many cases his wife has to accompany him even though it will sacrifice her current job position.

(INDONESIA, WOMEN?S STATUS, HUMAN RIGHTS, SEX DISCRIMINATION, HUMAN RESOURCES).

English - pp. 237-268.

P. Tjiptoherijanto, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2&3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia.

prijono@pusdata.dprin.go.id.

***

DIMAN, Tohir; KANTNER, Andrew.

Household expenditure and the utilization of family planning and maternal health services in Indonesia.

Using information on household expenditure from the 1994 Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey (1994 IDHS), it is found that there is substantial variation in the level and distribution of household expenditure in Indonesia. Most households in Indonesia spend more money each month for food than non-food items. In addition, poorer provinces (as measured by total monthly household expenditure levels) tend to have greater inequality in the distribution of wealth. However, in general, Indonesia is not typified by major regional variations in the equality of household expenditure. Households with high expenditure levels are more likely to use contraception than households with low expenditure levels. In terms of individual methods, women residing in wealthier households are more likely to be using injectables and female sterilization, which suggest that poor accessibility and the cost of these methods may be discouraging use among poorer women. However, implant prevalence is greater in households with lower spending levels; while pills, IUDs, condoms, and male sterilization do not have clear patterns of association with household expenditure levels. As has been noted in previous studies, poorer households rely more on public sector reproductive health services (family planning, prenatal and delivery services). Households with high expenditure levels rely more upon private hospitals, pharmacy/drug stores, private doctors, and private family planning clinics for their family planning care. Households with the lowest expenditure levels rely primarily upon fieldworkers/PKLB, mobile units, traditional healers/dukuns, government health centers (puskesmas), and government health posts (posyandu). It is important to note that private sector social marketing programs designed to offer methods through commercial outlets have been less readily utilized by Indonesia's poorer households. Continuing efforts are needed to ensure that poorer households are able to gain access to family planning services, primarily through lower cost public sector providers and segmented commercial distribution systems.

(INDONESIA, FAMILY BUDGET, EXPENDITURES, CONTRACEPTIVE PREVALENCE, CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS, POVERTY, COSTS).

English - pp. 269-309.

T. Diman, Bureau of System and Data Processing, National Family Planning Coordinating Board, Jakarta, Indonesia; A. Kantner, Program on Population, East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A.

abkantner@aol.com.

***

JOURNAL OF POPULATION, 1998, Vol. 4, N? 1

MUHIDIN, Salahuddin.

Methods of observing and estimating migration data using census and survey data.

Three sources of data are generally used to estimate demographic variables. There are census, survey, and registration system. In many countries, the census is the main source of migration data. The census and survey typically provide migration data on a comparison of place of residence at the time of survey or census at the location n years ago. Adequate migration data are essential for population projection. However, incomplete data problems occur frequently in these disciplines. Therefore some estimation methods should be applied. The objective of this paper is to analyse some basic principles of migration measurement. It attempts to bridge the gap between available data and the information required for a research. The paper is part of Multiregional Demographic Projection research, aims to develop a new synthetic database for population projection by combining some data sources.

(METHODOLOGY, MIGRATION MEASUREMENT, CENSUS DATA, SURVEYS, ESTIMATES).

English - pp. 1-21.

S. Muhidin, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2&3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia.

demofeui@indo.net.id.

***

KEASBERRY, Iris N.

The implications of social change for elderly care in rural Java: A theoretical framework.

Indications are that practices of elderly care are changing in rural Java, Indonesia. Therefore, it is important to know what kind of processes of change takes place in the Indonesian society and how these processes are influencing elderly care. First a short overview is given on the classical and alternative theories of social change. This article is an attempt to describe and unravel the processes of change. It aims to present a context in which elderly care is changing in Indonesia. The primary focus is the elderly care provided by individuals -- within the household or social network -- in rural areas and is not the process of social change in itself. An analytical model is developed to interpret the macro, intermediate and micro levels and to simplify the complex connections between them. Finally, some methods to study elderly care and social change in rural Indonesia are presented.

(INDONESIA, RURAL AREAS, AGED, SOCIAL CHANGE, THEORETICAL MODELS, LIVING CONDITIONS).

English - pp. 23-54.

I. N. Keasberry, Department of Economics and Management, Sub-department Household and Consumer Studies, Wageningen Agricultural University, Netherlands.

Iris.Keasberry@soc.hhs.wau.nl.

***

UTOMO, Budi; FITRIA, Laila; SULAEHA, Eti; DACHLIA, Dini; KUSHARISUPENI.

Feeding pattern, nutrient intake, and nutritional status among children 0-23 months of age in Indramayu, West Java, 1997.

A survey to asses feeding patterns, nutrient intake, and nutritional status of infants and young children aged 0-23 months was conducted in two sub-districts of Indramayu Regency, West Java, in October-November 1997 when the economic crisis was about to begin. In the past, breastfeeding was nearly-universal and extended breastfeeding was common. The traditional early feeding practices, such as delayed initiation of breastfeeding, prelacteal feeding, the practice of discarding colostrum, and early timing of supplementary feeding were also common. Food varieties and frequencies increased while breast-milk consumption decreased with the increasing age of the children. Meat and fish were rarely consumed, even for older infants and children. Nutrient intakes especially the micro-nutrients were not yet adequate. Fever, diarrhea, and cough were the common reported symptoms suggesting that respiratory and gastrointestinal tract infections continued to be the main illnesses among infants and young children. The prevalence of under-nutrition among children has substantially reduced in the past five years, but such a reduced prevalence remained relatively high. Mothers with better nutritional status bear better nourished children. Thus, the survey concurs with the policy of promoting healthy mothers for healthy children, and better nutrient intakes and better control of diarrheal diseases and acute respiratory infections for better child nutritional status.

(INDONESIA, INFANT FEEDING, CHILD NUTRITION, BREAST FEEDING, MORBIDITY, MALNUTRITION).

English - pp. 55-87.

B. Utomo, L. Fitria, E. Sulaeha and D. Dachlia, Center for Health Research, University of Indonesia, Indonesia; Kusharisupeni, Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Public Health, University of Indonesia, Indonesia.

budiut@hotmail.com.

***

SPREITZHOFER, G?nter; HEINTEL, Martin.

Urbanization in West Java in the "New Order" Era: Demographic and socioeconomic trends in Jabotabek region.

The rapid urbanization in Java is primarily based on the development of its metropolitan region Jabotabek, the mega-urban agglomeration around Indonesia's capital Jakarta. This article deals with the interdependence of economic, spatial and demographic change within Metro-Jakarta, South-East Asia's most densely populated urban region. Focus is put on aspects of metro-management and dynamic city-development, which has been politically pushed since the beginning of the "New Order" Government in the late 1960s. The deregulation packages the last decade have resulted in enormous international capital influx, the creation of new towns and an increasing transformation of sectoral employment, which cannot be controlled succesfully by regional and local authorities. This is due to the dominance of private, partly international developers, whose interest in globalizing low-wage Jabotabek is footloose in character and at present limited due to Indonesia's economic and political turmoil, which could postpone Jabotabek's rise to a global region.

(INDONESIA, URBANIZATION, REGIONS, MEGALOPOLIS, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT, POPULATION DYNAMICS).

English - pp. 89-111.

***

JOURNAL OF POPULATION, 1998, Vol. 4, N? 2

Special Issue: Women's Studies Project

ADIOETOMO, Sri Moertiningsih; EGGLESTON, Elizabeth.

Helping the husband, maintaining harmony: Family planning, women's work and women's household autonomy in Indonesia.

The research questions examined in this study were: (1)what is the effect of family planning on women's labor force participation?, and (2)what is the effect of family planning and labor force participation on women's household autonomy? Researchers from the Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia and Women's Studies Project conducted a secondary analysis of the 1993 Indonesia Family Life Survey (IFLS), looking at 4,617 married women ages 15 to 49. Since the IFLS did not provide information on the relationship between women's work and household autonomy, in-depth interviews were conducted with 16 women, and separately, with their husbands, in West Java and North Sumatra. In addition, interviews were conducted with one male and one female community leader from each province. Analysis of the IFLS data showed that family planning only partially explained variation in women's work status. A number of background variables also helped explain women's work status. When individual women and men were asked about family planning use in the qualitative part of this study, they expressed general agreement with the practice and spoke of its benefits. However, they did not link family planning and work opportunities. While family planning did not increase women's perceived household autonomy, it did help couples achieve a small family size, and thus freed women's time for activities other than child care. Having fewer children helped couples stretch money for food, health care and educational expenses for their children. Family planning use and the employment of women helped women and couples with their household survival strategy.

(INDONESIA, FAMILY PLANNING, FEMALE EMPLOYMENT, WOMEN?S STATUS, FAMILY SIZE).

English - pp. 7-31.

S. M. Adioetomo, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2&3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia; E. Eggleston, Family Health International, Research Triangle Park, NC, U.S.A.

demofeui@indo.net.id; EEggleston@fhi.org.

***

FATUROCHMAN; Hull, TERENCE H.; DWIYANTO, Agus.

Validity and reliability of family welfare measures: An experiment in Central and East Java.

In the midst of an economic and political crisis, Indonesia is struggling to monitor changes in the levels of poverty and welfare, both as a guide to policy and a means of identifying appropriate target groups for interventions. The Habibie government is largely relying on the Family Welfare Assessments (Pendataan Keluarga Sejahtera/KS) of the National Family Planning Coordinating Board (BKKBN) for these purposes, because other measures of economic status are neither sufficiently comprehensive nor timely. The Women's Studies Project carried out by the Population Studies Center of Gadjah Mada University (UGM) in 1996 provides an interesting experiment to test the validity and reliability of the KS data. This was done by careful analysis of the questions used in the "pendataan" and a comparison of data collected by BKKBN using local volunteer workers, and UGM using trained interviewers who were strangers to the villages. The results show that the BKKBN data tend to overestimate the welfare level of families by most economic and social measures, but slightly underestimate the degree to which families are actively involved in improving their religious knowledge. Most importantly, though, the BKKBN "pendataan" reflects assumptions about the meaning of family planning in people's welfare that is not shared by most respondents. Where the BKKBN sees family planning and family size as a component of welfare, women see these as less important in determining welfare than issues of income security and other dimensions of financial welfare that are determined by external forces.

(INDONESIA, FAMILY WELFARE, DATA COLLECTION, DATA EVALUATION).

English - pp. 33-55.

Faturochman, Faculty of Psychology, and A. Dwiyanto, Public Administration Department, Faculty of Social Sciences and Politics, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia; T. H. Hull, Demographic Program, RSSS, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.

psc-gmu@yogya.wasantara.net.id; terry.hull@anu.edu.au.

***

AMAL, Siti Hidayati; NOVRIATY, Shanty; HARDEE, Karen.

Family planning and women's empowerment: Challenges for the Indonesian family.

This study focused on the relationship between family planning and women's empowerment among a sample of 800 married women, ages 30 to 45, from Jakarta and Ujung Pandang. Findings are reported from both a quantitative survey of women and in-depth interview with women and their husbands. Family planning use was high among women in this study, as it is throughout Indonesia. The majority of contraceptive users said family planning had no negative effect on their lives (68% in Jakarta and 71% in Ujung Pandang). Some women had economic autonomy in decision-making regarding daily expenditures, but not necessarily large expenditures. Still many women said they had to account to their husbands for how they spent money. Women, even those who earned their own income by working, tended to put their families' needs before their own when allocating economic resources. Women and men reported high levels of harmony within the home. In the survey, women in Jakarta and Ujung Pandang said communication between husbands and wives was open and free, although men were the dominant decision-makers. Women said that they could discuss many aspects of life with their husbands. Women indicated in the survey that they thought their opinions were valued by their husbands, and in the in-depth interviews, many women (and men) described a home environment in which husbands were consulted on most activities.

(INDONESIA, FAMILY PLANNING, WOMEN?S EMANCIPATION, RESOURCE ALLOCATION, DECISION MAKING, INTERSPOUSE RELATIONSHIPS).

English - pp. 57-86.

S. H. Amal and S. Novriaty, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, University of Indonesia, Indonesia; K. Hardee, The Futures Group International, 2 Winchester Lane, Huntington, NY 11743, U.S.A.

wsp2fm@indo.net.id;

awang@cbn.net.id; K.Hardee@tfgi.com.

***

IRWANTO; POERWANDARI, E. Kristi; HARDEE, Karen.

In the shadow of men: Reproductive decision-making and women's psychological well-being in Indonesia.

This study assesses the effect of reproductive decision-making on women's psychological well-being. The study was carried out in urban and rural sites in South Sumatra and Lampung. A total of 800 women were included in a survey and 24 women participated in in-depth interviews. Prior to the survey, focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted to help develop survey questions about psychological well-being. Factor analysis of the survey data identified 10 factors of psychological well-being. Some aspects of psychological well-being were significantly associated with using contraception. The survey found that many women do initiate the decision to use contraceptives, but in the in-depth interviews, many women said they found it difficult to talk to their husbands about fertility control. Most women made contraceptive decisions primarily with their husbands' desires in mind. Women in this study appreciated the benefits of family planning, however many have been adversely affected by contraceptive use and by the perceived lack of support they get from their husbands and from the family planning program, especially in dealing with side effects.

(INDONESIA, WOMEN, INDIVIDUAL WELFARE, DECISION MAKING, INTERSPOUSE RELATIONSHIPS, FAMILY PLANNING, PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS).

English - pp. 87-113.

Irwanto, Center for Societal Development Studies, Atma Jaya Catholic University; E. K. Poerwandari, Clinical Psychology Division, Faculty of Psychology, University of Indonesia, Indonesia; K. Hardee, The Futures Group International, 2 Winchester Lane, Huntington, NY 11743, U.S.A.

K.Hardee@tfgi.com.

***

HARDEE, Karen; EGGLESTON, Elizabeth; HULL, Terence H.

The women's studies project in Indonesia: Themes and implications.

No summary.

(INDONESIA, WOMEN?S STATUS, RESEARCH PROJECTS).

English - pp. 115-119.

K. Hardee, The Futures Group International, 2 Winchester Lane, Huntington, NY 11743, U.S.A.; E. Eggleston, Family Health International, Research Triangle Park, NC, U.S.A.; T. H. Hull, Demographic Program, RSSS, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.

K.Hardee@tfgi.com;

EEggleston@fhi.org; terry.hull@anu.edu.au.

***

JOURNAL OF POPULATION, 1999, Vol. 5, N? 1

ADIOETOMO, Sri Moertiningsih.

The demographic dimension of family changes in Indonesia.

The successful economic and social development conducted by the Government of Indonesia has led to a relatively rapid demographic transition. The socioeconomic progress, particularly in the late 80s and early 90s, has increased the welfare of the people which in turn has led to changes in family life. These changes as manifested in the household composition, living arrangement, family formation pattern, attitude towards reproductive health and parenthood, etc. have positive as well as negative impacts on the welfare of the family. While the positive impacts should be maintained or even enhanced, a solution must be sought to tackle the negative impacts. Intervention by the government to reduce social tensions is certainly very important but is not the only way out. The community must be encouraged to participate and collaborate with the private sectors to alleviate poverty.

(INDONESIA, DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION, SOCIAL CHANGE, FAMILY WELFARE).

English - pp. 1-27.

S. M. Adioetomo, Demographic Institute, Faculty of Economics, University of Indonesia, Gedung A, Lantai 2 & 3, Kampus UI, Depok 16424, Indonesia.

demofeui@indo.net.id.

***

UTOMO, Iwu Dwisetyani.

State ideologies and provision of reproductive health education and services: A case study in some cities in Indonesia.

The justification for this paper is that the government of Indonesia still does not see young people as sexual beings who need information and services related to reproductive health with the result that their reproductive health needs are under-served, and they remain under-informed, marginalized and disadvantaged. The government still treats sex as a private matter and not as a public health concern. Consequently, sexuality remains marginal in the health and education agendas. Access to contraception and reproductive health services is highly restricted for single people. Sex education is not given at school and parents are reluctant to talk about sex to their children. Despite the sexual pressures that young people in Indonesia are experiencing, their lack of knowledge on sexual and reproductive health issues puts them at risk of STDs including AIDS, premarital pregnancy and abortion, early marriage, and maternal and child health related problems. Other effects may be the loss of economic and educational opportunities through premarital pregnancy and early marriage. Data used in this paper are derived from the 1994/1995 Jakarta Marriage Values and Sexuality Survey conducted in Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Palembang over a period of nine months. The survey in Jakarta covers 344 high school students, and 175 university students. Besides the survey, qualitative data from Yogyakarta and Palembang were also obtained. Methods included in the qualitative approach are focus-group discussions and in-depth interviews.

(INDONESIA, YOUTH, PUBLIC HEALTH, SEX EDUCATION, FAMILY PLANNING, POPULATION AT RISK, GOVERNMENT POLICY).

English - pp. 29-66.

I. D. Utomo, Asian Development Bank-Indonesia Resident Mission, BRI II Building, Jl. Sudirman Kav. 44-46, Jakarta 10210, Indonesia.

idutomo@mail.AsianDevBank.org.

***

JONES, Gavin W.

Approaches to understanding sexuality and reproductive health.

Gender considerations are at the heart of issues of sexuality in the Asian region. These include images of gender roles and the double standard with regard to premarital and extramarital sex. Increasing levels of education, delayed age at marriage, increasing freedom for young people to interact with members of the opposite sex, and increased access to sexually explicit material through various information media represent the changing context in which issues of adolescent sexuality are addressed. Studies in different countries show substantial levels of premarital sexual activity, with widely varying proportions of such activity occurring within committed relationships. This changing context provides a serious challenge to strategies for provision of reproductive health information and services to adolescents. It also provides a challenge to the tacit acceptance of long-standing customs posing increased health dangers in the current era of HIV/AIDS. Approaches to these issues in countries of the region range between more moralistic and more public health emphasis. Recent studies in Asia have shown that adolescent sexuality and reproductive health can be effectively researched through a variety of approaches. There is a growing body of evidence on which to base the discussion of important issues relating to sexuality.

(ASIA, SEXUALITY, SOCIAL CHANGE, ADOLESCENCE, PREMARITAL SEX BEHAVIOUR, FAMILY PLANNING POLICY, CULTURAL CHANGE).

English - pp. 67-86.

G. W. Jones, Division of Demography and Sociology, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.

Gavin.Jones@anu.edu.au.

***

ALISJAHBANA, Armida S.

Does demand for children's schooling quantity and quality in Indonesia differ across expenditure classes?

This paper presents estimated reduced-form equations for primary, lower secondary, higher secondary school enrollments (school quantity), and households' schooling expenditure per child (school quality) using the 1993 Indonesian Family Life Survey data. There are significant differences in the responsiveness of several school enrollment and household schooling expenditure per child determinants across household expenditure classes. Several important findings have emerged from the analysis undertaken here. First, parental education and household per capita expenditures are consistently among the strongest determinants of households' demand for schooling quantity and quality across schooling levels. The beneficial impact of mothers' education is much stronger in all cases, although it does not appear to differ across expenditure classes. Second, male children have higher probability of being enrolled and receive higher quality of schooling at the secondary levels than the females, but this effect is weaker (or almost non existent) for the middle and highest income households. Thus, gender discrimination in favor of boys' schooling is evident only for the poorer households.

(INDONESIA, SCHOOL ENROLMENT, EXPENDITURES, DEMAND, SEX DIFFERENTIALS).

English - pp. 87-114.

A. S. Alisjahbana, Department of Economics and Development Studies, Faculty of Economics, Padjadjaran University, Bandung, Indonesia.

alisjahb@melsa.net.id.

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